Accent and Dialect Flashcards
1
Q
Which department stores were surveyed in Labov’s New York Study?
A
Sak’s
Macy’s
Klein’s
2
Q
What speech feature did Labov’s New York study analyse?
A
The post-vocalic/ preconsonantal “r” in relation to socioeconomic status variation.
(Phonology)
3
Q
In what year was Labov’s New York study conducted?
A
1966
4
Q
What did Trudgill’s Norwich study analyse and who did he survey?
A
Non-standard forms such as g-dropping, as in “walkin’”.
(Grammar)
He sampled people from different electoral wards.
5
Q
What did Cheshire’s Reading study examine?
A
Non-standard “s”
Non-standard “has” and “was”
Double negation
Non-standard “what”
Non-standard “never”
Non-standard “do”
Non-standard “come”
“Ain’t” as an auxiliary “have”, auxiliary “be”, and a copula.
(Grammar)
6
Q
Define copula.
A
A word that links the subject of a sentence to a subject complement. (E.g. in the sentence “the sky is blue”, “is” is the copula).
7
Q
Which social variable did Labov’s Martha’s Vineyard study examine?
A
Loyalty.
8
Q
According to Giles’ Generalised Accent Prestige Continuum, which accents attract the highest prestige?
A
Received pronunciation, French-accented English, Edinburgh English, and one’s own accent.
9
Q
Which years did Howard Giles accent surveys take place? What trends were shown in the results?
A
1969, 2004, 2019
They all shared the same trends in accent, though the greatest change was the perception of the Indian accent, which garnered much higher ratings in 2019 than in 2004 and 1969.
10
Q
Which accents did Giles’ studies give consistently low ratings?
A
Ethnic minority accents (Indian, Caribbean), and historically industrial urban accents (Cockney, Liverpool, Essex, Birmingham).
11
Q
Give the order of accent prestige established in Giles’ Generalised Accent Prestige Continuum.
A
Received pronunciation
North American + French
German
South Welsh
Irish
Italian
Northern English
Somerset
Cockney + Indian
Birmingham
12
Q
What did George Puttenham (1589) say about working class accents?
A
“the speach of a craftes man or carter, or of the other inferior sort… doe abuse good speaches by strange accents or ill shapen soundes.” (The Arte of English Poesie)
13
Q
What did Sharma’s study assess, and what did it conclude?
A
Real audio clips of job interviews were played to the participants, and they were asked to rank the accents. Comparatively, the differences between accents became smaller and people were more careful about letting accent bias affect whether they thought a person was a good fit for the job.
Younger people didn’t assess the accents differently at all.
Those above the age of 40 judged speakers of the two working class London accents to be less competent and less hireable, even though candidates gave exactly the same responses.
The same age pattern was found 15 years ago, suggesting not that the age pattern is a decline in bias over time, but that our views become more conventional as we age. Bias was also greater among people who grew up in southern England and were from a higher social class.
14
Q
Which accents did Sharma’s study assess, and how?
A
The 1014 participants heard five accents: received pronunciation(middle and upper class), estuary English (working or lower middle class), multicultural London English (young, multi-ethnic), general northern English (middle class), and urban West Yorkshire English (working-class).
15
Q
How did Sharma’s findings show themselves in the legal profession?
A
In a test of 61 lawyers, competency of candidates did not interfere whatsoever with their evaluation of candidates.
16
Q
Which study claimed that ethnic minority names on CVs received significantly fewer replies than Cs with typically white names?
A
2009 research from NatCen Social Research, commissioned by the government.
17
Q
In a 2013 study, what percentage of employers admitted to discriminating against candidates by accent?
A
76%
18
Q
What comments were made in informal feedback to Sharma?
A
One lawyer was told he would need elocution lessons before he could be introduced to a client.
One said “I will assume that someone with a posh accent is better educated, more intelligent, and reliable than someone with a less smart accent. I should emphasise that I don’t think it is right to do this, it’s just one of a series of snap judgements I make about people I meet.”
19
Q
What does Sharma’s informal feedback suggest about her earlier findings?
A
While people recognise their desire to promote equality and limit accent bias, this doesn’t mean professionals make the same effort in practice. However, it ultimately shows that people in positions of power can disregard their natural unconscious accent biases if they want to.
20
Q
Give examples of phonological variation in the North London accent.
A
G- dropping: words such as “morning” become “mornin’”.
Exchange of “l” phoneme for the “w” phoneme, meaning “school” becomes “scoow”.
Th-fronting, with exchange for the f phoneme, meaning “path” becomes “paff”.
21
Q
Give examples of phonological variation in the Kerry accent.
A
Lengthening of vowel sounds, shown in words such as “woke” which may be pronounced as “woorke”.
Alteration of monophthongs to be pronounced as diphthongs. For example, “school” may be pronounced as “schoowl”.
Absence of trap/ bath split, words such as “path”, pronounced as “pahth” in standard English, may be pronounced as “path”.
22
Q
Give examples of phonological variation in the Glasgow accent.
A
Lengthening of vowels, such as in words like “woke” which may be pronounced as “woorke”.
Rolling of “r”s in words such as “morning” (voiced alveolar trill).
Absence of trap/ bath split. “Path”, pronounced as “pahth” in Standard English, is pronounced as “path”.
23
Q
What proportion of passengers felt most safe with a male pilot speaking with a “posh accent”?
A
4/5, according to a Daily Mail article.
24
Q
Give the Daily Mail article’s findings on regional accents in relation to their pilot.
A
72% felt safe with an Edinburgh accent.
65% felt safe with a Geordie accent.
76% felt UNSAFE with a Brummie accent.
83% felt more safe with a male pilot than a female.
25
How did Wilkinson (1965) classify accents?
First-class accents (RP, forms of Scottish and Irish)
Second-class accents (majority of British regional accents)
Third-class accents (certain large industrial towns)
26
Define bidialectalism.
The ability to speak with two accents.
27
What did Dr Hall and a team from University of York (2008) conclude about strength of accent and patriotism?
Accent and Identity on the Scottish-English Border found a very strong correlation between those who said they'd vote "yes" for Scottish independence and those with a very identifiable Scottish accent.
28
What did Dr Damien Hall say about bidialectalism?
"Bidialectalism is almost always subconscious"
For people labelled "working-class" "there is no outside impulse at all to change how they speak"
"By contrast there are far fewer upper class people who have a regional accent to start with"
These factors aim to explain how bidialectalism is usually confined to the middle classes.
Both the working poor and powerful elite have historically stuck with their own.
29
Where does Dr Hall's study (2008) gain support form theory?
Labov's Martha's Vineyard study.
30
Define covert prestige.
Prestige acquired in a community by using a non-standard language variety. This is intentional, as against bidialectalism.
31
Define overt prestige.
Prestige acquired in a community by using standard/ formal language varieties associated with power and status.
32
Outline Giles' Accommodation Theory.
When people try to emphasise or minimise the social difference between themself and others in an interaction. The factors that lead to the accommodation activity are adjustments which can be made through verbal communication or through gestures.
33
Define convergence.
A speaker modifies their speech to more closely resemble the addressee's speech.
34
Define divergence.
A process in which a speaker linguistically moves in the opposite direction to their speech partner in order to make their speech more unlike that of the person they are talking to.
35
Give one example of phonological accent levelling.
In the 1950s, the proportion of people in the south-west of England who pronounced the "r" in "arm" exceeded 95%. As of 2016, this has dwindled to roughly 30% in areas such as Bristol and Cornwall and less than 5% in much of the surrounding region.
36
Give one example of lexical levelling.
In the 1950s, the proportion of people who used the term "backend" instead of "autumn" was over 80% in much of Northern England. As of 2016, this usage has ceased entirely, as less than 1% across the whole of the British Aisles.
37
What did a four-year study by Paul Kerswill and Dr Ann Williams suggest about regional accent?
Regional accent may be lost due to the levelling shown in the children of Milton Keynes.
38
How was Kerswill and Williams' interview conducted?
Dr Williams interviewed 48 children- half boys, half girls- from three age groups on two adjacent housing estates. A parent or carer was recorded for each child, as were elderly people who had been living in the area before the new town was built. They were asked to read from a list, given pronunciation tests, interviewed, and recorded talking to their friends.
39
What phonological variables were recorded in the Milton Keynes study?
H-dropping and th-fronting. (e.g. "head" vs "ed" and "thing" vs "fing").
40
What was found in the Milton Keynes study?
Children of Milton Keynes, with a population of roughly 180,000 27 years after it was designated a new town, had adopted their own accent regardless of where their parents came from.
41
What did Dr Williams say on the findings in accordance with age group?
"In the four-year-old age group they sounded quite like their parents because they had not started school, but by the time they were eight they sounded less like them, and by twelve they had few things in common with them linguistically."
42
Give phonological differences between traditional Buckinghamshire speech and the speech of children in Milton Keynes.
Buckinghamshire- "arm" as "arrm", "night" as "noit".
Milton Keynes children- "arm" as "ahm", "night" as "naa-it", similar to London accents.
The glottal stop (as in "water" becoming "wa'er") is widely used in the new Milton Keynes accent.
43
How could its findings be regarded according to the study?
It could be "regarded as a microcosm of developments in the south-east of England." A levelling of accents is taking place all over the region.
44
Give examples of counties whose accents may sound similar in the future.
Kent, Norfolk, and Devon.
45
What is the difference between dialect levelling and 'Estuary English'.
Estuary English is a new form of English in the south-east created by middle-class working people moderating their accents and upwardly mobile working-class people refining theirs.
46
What does Kerswill believe to be the main reason for dialect levelling?
Population mobility.
47
Give the five principle characteristics of the Norfolk accent.
1. It is non-rhotic, as is RP.
2. Does not usually exhibit h-dropping (different to many British regional accents).
3. Distinctive rhythm- some stressed vowels are longer than their RP equivalents, and some unstressed vowels are much shorter.
4. The foot-strut split is developed. The quality of the "u" in "strut" is more back and close than that of contemporary RP. It can be described as a centralized mid-back unrounded vowel.
5. Yod-dropping is common between consonants, "music" becoming "moosic".
48
Give three examples of grammatical difference in the Norfolk dialect.
-In the third-person present tense, the "s" at the end of verbs disappears so that "she goes" becomes "she go". "Doesn't" and "wasn't" also become "don't" and "weren't" in the same way.
-Some verbs conjugate differently in Norfolk, "show" becoming "shew", "snow "snew", "drive" "driv", and "sang" "sung".
-The verb "to be" conjugates variously in the negative. "I'm not" may become "I en't", "I in't", "I aren't".
-The word "together" may be used when addressing multiple people to indicate the speaker is addressing a group. (E.g. "How are you getting on together?").
-The word "never" has wider use, as a way of saying "did not". (E.g. "I never did that.")
49
Give four examples of phonological variables in the Norfolk accent.
-Where RP has the rounded lot vowel in words containing the spellings "f", "ff", "gh", or "th" (such as "often", "off", "cough", "trough", etc.) Norfolk show the "ou" phoneme as in "thought". This is a manifestation of the lot/cloth split.
-Words with spelling "oa", "oe", snd "oCe" such as "boat", "toe", "code" sound like "boot", "too", "cood" respectively. An exception to that is words spelt with "ou", "ow", "ol" such as "soul", "know", "told" which have a diphthong quite similar to the RP. This is a preservation of the toe/tow distinction, lost in most modern English accents.
-Glottal stops are widely found in Norfolk speech so that "better" becomes "be-er". Alternatively, /p, t, k/ may be pronounced with the glottal closure, as in "up-er" and "thik-er". This pronunciation is also found when another consonant follows.
-In contexts where RP has the dark "l", some older Norfolk speakers use the "clear l" so that the /l/ in "hill" and "milk" is pronounced similarly to the "l" at the start of "lip". L-vocalisation is not as widespread in this accent as in other areas of England.
50
Define the glottal stop.
A non-standard pronunciation of the plosive "t", mid-word, with the throat (glottis). For example, "wa-uh" instead of "water". It may be used in Norfolk and Essex accents.
51
Define levelling.
Gradual reduction in accent variation. Term coined by Paul Kerswill.
52
Which scholars worked on the 'Speaking Up' project from the Sutton Trust?
Erez Levon, Devyani Sharma, Christian Ilbury
53
Give three findings of the 'Speaking Up' project.
Young people from the North of England and the Midlands are much more likely to worry that their accents will count against them in higher education or employment.
25% of adults said their accents had been criticised or ridiculed at work.
47% of university students and 46% of adults said their accents had been singled out or mocked in social situations.
54
Give three examples of phonological variables of the Geordie accent.
-G-dropping at the end of words such as "reading" becoming "readin'". This differs from RP but is similar to Norfolk varieties.
-T-glottalisation realised before a syllabic nasal ("button" becomes "bud-on")
-Lacks foot-strut split so that "cut", "up", and "luck" share the same phoneme as "put", "sugar", and "butcher"
54
Give three examples of Geordie dialect.
-Nouns: "bairn" may be used to mean child, "clarts" to mean mud.
-Adjectives: "canny" may be used to mean pleasant, "clag" to mean sticky.
-Imperative noun phrases: "howay" may be used to mean "hurry up" or "come one", as "haddaway" would mean "go away".
55
Give three examples of phonetic variation in the Scottich accent.
-Epenthetic vowels (makinbg more than one sound) occur between letters "r" and "l" meaning "girl" and "world" become two-syllable words.
-Absence of the trap/bath split in most dialects so that "bath", "trap", and "palm" have the same vowel sound.
-The sounds "p", "t", and"k" are weakly aspirated (short bursts of breath following pronunciation).
56
Give three examples of grammatical variation in the Scottish dialect.
-Progressive verbs used more frequently than in other varieties of SE (e.g. "you'll be wanting").
-Prepositions often used differently, speakers tend to say "off of" rather than "off", and use "waiting on you" instead of "waiting for you" which carries a different meaning in SE.
-In colloquial speech, the contraction "amn't" is often used in place of "I am not".
57
Give three examples of Scottish dialect.
-The ending "ie" is added to indicate smallness (e.g. "lassie", "laddie) particularly common among older generations.
-The use of "how" instead of "why", as "why not?" becomes "how no?"
- "Stay" may be used instead of "live" (e.g. "Where do you stay?")
58
Give one phonetic similarity of Geordie and Scottish English.
Both speakers adhere to the Scottish vowel length rule and are likely to use dipthongs in place of monopthongs (e.g. in "face") showing them to be different from SE variations.
59
Give one phonetic difference between Geordie and Scottish English.
Scottish is usually a rhotic accent, whereas Tyneside English shares its non-rhotic quality with Standard English.
60
How likely are white students to be accepted into law school compared to ethnic minority students?
White students- 10%
Ethnic minority students- 4%
Females are also less likely to be accepted than males.
(from the 2022 'Crack the Class Ceiling documentary)
61
What percentage of judges are privately educated? How does this compare to the rest of the population?
Judges- 65%
General public- 7%
(from the 2022 'Crack the Class the Ceiling' documentary)
62
How does a private education and 'posh' accent affect interviews?
People with a private education are more likely to achieve (as the 'Crack the Class Ceiling' documentary calls it) a 'serendipitous match' or similarity with the interviewer.
Homogenous elite- mediocre 'posh' people get jobs they are under-qualified for to the detriment of brilliant working-class people.
63
Which three distinct groups make up Labov's Martha's Vineyard study?
The native Wampanoag people.
Two groups of European descent (the descendants of English settlers who arrived in the 17th century, and a Portugese community).
64
What did Labov wish to understand with his MV study?
How the everyday use of English varied withing the community. He wished to examine linguistic variation and how they choose to pronounce words.
65
Which linguistic variables did he measure?
The diphthongs- /ai/ and /au/.
Vineyarders centralised these (the intial /a/ sound was produced with the tongue in a more central position in the mouth).
66
What were Labov's findings?
The most conspicuous centralisation was shown my middle-aged fisherman who resented tourist presence.
In the Portugese community, the elder residents who hadn't integrated with island life used little centralisation compared to younger residents who had.
High-schoolers who expressed the desire to leave the island in the future were more likely to use mainland pronunciation than those who remained loyal to the island.
67
What does the MV study prove?
Language use was related to social variables such as loyalty.
68
Give two evaluation points for the MV study.
It was conducted in the 1960s- modern generational divide may not apply (change happened following WWII).
Modern linguists have found similar patterns (potentially with Trudgill's Norwich study).
69
What did Labov's department store study show?
Individual patterns were part of a highly systematic structure of social and stylistic stratification.
70
What method did Labov use in his NYDS study?
Each informant was prompted by an inquiry designed to elicit the answer "fourth floor"- which may display the presence or absence of the preconsonantal (r). A pretence not to have heard it obtained a repeat performance in careful, emphatic style.
71
What were the findings of Labov's NYDS study?
The findings were that the Sak's sales assistants used it most, those from Klein's used it least , and those from Macy's showed the greatest 'upward shift' when they were asked to repeat.
72
What do the findings of Labov's NYDP study show?
Frequency of use of the prestige variable final or preconsonantal (r) varied with level of formality and social class.
73
Explain the history of the fomality of the non-rhotic (r) in New York.
Historically, NY had neem dominated by a non-rhotic dialect. However, negative representation led to the increased pronunciation of (r). Its frequency depended on the speakers' membership to particular socioeconomic status groups.
74
Give 2 evaluation points for Labov's NYDS study.
1966- outdated. Perhaps exists in historical perception of class system ( there has been an increase in social mobility).
May have limited application due to specific focus groups.
75
What was the title of Peter Trudgill's Norwich Study?
The social differentiation of English in Norwich.
76
What does Trudgill's Norwich study focus on?
Investigation of language variation and social factors that influence language use.
77
What speech features did Trudgill's Norwich study analyse?
The velar nasal "ng" sound at the ends of words (e.g. "walking" vs "walkin").
Dropping the pronunciation of the "r" in words such as "car" or pronouncing it in words such as "farmer".
78
What did Trudgill theorise?
Lower class people were more likely to pronounce words ending with "ng" with an (n) sound rather than the velar nasal song.
79
How did Trudgill conduct his Norwich study?
He sampled speakers from different electoral wards of Norwich.
80
What did Trudgill's Norwich study find?
Men were more likely to drop the "ng" than women.
(ng)/ (n) distinction isn't unique to Norwich/ a specific region but is instead related to social class.
Women were more susceptible to overt prestige.
Lower classes dropped the "ng" more than upper classes.
One finding concluded that lower class people were more likely to use non-standard pronunciations such as dropping the (r) sound in words like "car" or pronouncing it in words like "farmer".
81
How was the differentiation between the "ing" and "in" endings formed?
Stems from the Old English where there were two forms, a gerund ending "ing" ("walking is good for you") and a present participle ending ("he was walking"). The "end" form is the predecessor of "n" and "ing" of "ing".
82
Which features did Trudgill's study conclude affected speech?
Class, gender, carefulness of speech.
83
How was gender affected by speech in Trudgill's study?
When questioned, women claimed to use more standard forms than they did, and men claimed to use more non-standard forms than they did.
84
Give two evaluation points for Trudgill's study.
1974- outdated, works within an archaic social structure. The women studied were categorised into class districts based on the occupations of their father.
May also be impacted by the increase in levelling in modern society.
85
What did Jenny Cheshire study?
The relationship between use of grammatical variables of dialect and adherence to peer group culture of boys and girls.
86
Which variables did she study?
She recorded how often three peer groups used variables such as:
-non-standard "s" ("that's what they calls me.")
-non-standard "has" and "was" ("was you there?")
-double negation ("I ain't done nothing.")
-non-standard "what" ("are you the kids what went to my school?")
-non-standard "never" ("I never went to school today")
-non-standard "do" ("she do maths a level.")
-non-standard "come" ("I come here yesterday.")
-"ain't" as an auxiliary "have", auxiliary "be" and a copula ("I ain't seen her," "I ain't going back," "You ain't my mother")
87
How does she categorise the girls in her study?
She made a distinction between girls who didn't have a positive attitude to group activities such as carrying weapons, fighting, petty crime, use of swearing; and those who approved of them.
88
What did the study suggest?
Those girls who conformed to the conventions of the group who also used the linguistic standards of the group.
Similar findings were reflected when boys were compared to boys and boys against girls. Boys conformed most of all.
89
How was data gained in Jenny Cheshire's Reading study?
Data was gained by long-term participant observation. 13 boys and 12 girls recorded over an 8 month period. Cheshire gained acceptance from the groups in an adventure playground during school hours in Reading.
90
Give two evaluation points for Cheshire's Reading study.
Outdated- 1982
Moral objections to monitoring vulnerable children (serial absentees).
Small sample size of limited group- findings not necessarily universal.
91
Explain Dr Alex Baratta's study.
Conducted a study on teachers with broad accents being told by mentors to modify them.
92
What regulations are there surrounding teachers use of language?
Teachers must use standard English (about grammar and vocabulary, not accent) but there is no direct responsibility for them to use RP. This is called Teacher's standard.
93
What did Baratta find that mentors said regarding RP?
Mentors said RP allows them to be understood, 2 said accents sound unprofessional.
94
How does Baratta link class and accent?
If accent becomes a protected characteristic, so too would class; the two are so closely interlinked.
There is currently no legal recourse for accent-based discrimination. According to Baratta, a man was told his interview would be terminated if he didn't lose his accent. This allows for class discrimination as broader dialects are often associated with lower classes (Trudgill 1974).
95
How did mentors commonly advise teachers to alter their accents in Baratta's study?
They were told to use "bahth" and "bus" instead of "bath" and "boos" - removing northern varieties.
96
How are accents viewed in the workplace?
They are a "linguistic liability" (Baratta).
97
Why are accents viewed as unprofessional according to Baratta?
IT is less about the accents themselves as the presumed attitudes of the speakers- unwillingness to 'play the game' to conform and speak 'professionally'.
(The majority of speakers use a regional accent).
98
How did students react to teachers with regional accents in Baratta's study?
Students warmed more to teachers that spoke like them.
99
How can issues of accent discrimination be solved, according to Baratta?
Educate people on the development of language and dialect.
(e.g. If power was focused in the North of England, the Liverpuddlian accent may have become the norm- there is an arbitrary attribution of prestige.
Glottal stop used in Arabic, scouse 'c' sound used in Spanish- these sounds aren't non-standard in of themselves).
100
Assess the idea that no combination of sounds is inherently more/less difficult to understand according to Baratta's study.
Familiarity with an accent dictates its intelligibility. Therefore, some sounds are easier to understand than others, but this is directly link to accent exposure and could be combated by exposure to more varied accents. The media exposure of accent often accompanies accentism with class, intelligence, and trustworthiness (e.g. Frank Gallagher's broad Mancunian accent- example given by Baratta).
The cultural shift in accent perceptions is influenced by increased exposure (e.g. Allison Hammond's Brummie accent, Jack Grealish's Black Country accent, The Beatles' scouse twang).
101
What is a 'clip term'/ reductionism?
Shortening of words such as "gonna" in place of "going to".
102
What is linguicism and who developed this concept?
Linguicism is an idea invented by human rights activist and linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas describing accent and dialect-based discrimination. The prejudice of pronouncing "ask" as "aks" is an example of this.
103
How does the pronunciation of "ask" link to social groups?
In North America, "aks" was widely used in New England and the southern/ middle states. In the late 19th century, however it was stereotyped as being exclusive to African- American English.
American linguist John McWorter considers it an "integral part of being a Black American." (consider the implications of a feature of AAVE being considered uneducated or unprofessional).
Today, "aks" is a part of MLE.
104
How do people view non-standard forms of English?
Decades of research (e.g. that of Conceptual accent evaluation by Bishop, Coupland, and Garrett) shows the idea that any variation from standard English is incorrect, unprofessional, etc.
105
What is the effect of linguicism?
It can have serious consequences by worsening existing socio-economic and racial inequalities.
106
What does Bishop, Coupland, and Garrett's paper state?
Their paper contrasts findings from a new survey of 5010 informants from across the UK with the findings of Giles' 1970 study of social evaluation of some of the major accents in the UK. With some difference, the results are remarkably similar.
107
Discuss the authenticity of MLE or "Jafaican"?
Linguists Amanda Cole, Ella Jeffries, and Peter L Patrick discuss the authenticity of MLE saying "When we talk about 'salad', 'beef', or the 'government' we are not imitating French. They have simply become English words." The role of MLE in the English language is similar - the pronunciation of "aks" is, like any other dialect, in no way incorrect.
108
What does research by R. Andreas and J. Snell state about child language development?
(For the University of Leeds) suggests that working-class children struggle with the development of reading + writing skills if they grow up using regional accent/ dialect.
109
What did research by Amanda Cole for Cambridge University say about accentism?
Across South-East England, working-class or minority ethnic speakers, as well as those who identify their accent in geographically marked terms, are evaluated most negatively- particularly is they are from Essex or East London.
- shows how class and race directly link to regional accent/ dialect.
-young adults from minority ethnic/ working class backgrounds tend to be judged as less intelligent than others. This was worsened if the person was from Essex or London (or if they were thought to be from these regions, showing the baselessness of prejudice).
