Academic Review Social Flashcards
0
Q
What are the conflicts in Lewin’s field theory?
A
Conflicts in Lewin’s Field Theory are approach approach, avoidance avoidance, and approach avoidance.
1
Q
What is Field Theory?
A
What is field theory?
Based on the work of Kurt Lewin, assumes behavior is result of interaction between person and environment. Conflicts occur when forces directing individual towards and away from goal are approximately equal.
2
Q
What is the Zeigarnick effect?
A
The Zeigernick effect is the tendency to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed ones. The discovery grew out of research based on field theory. It has been found to vary with the amount of ego involvement associated with the task
3
Q
In Lewin’s field theory, what happens as a person with an approach approach conflict moves toward one of the goals?
A
When a person with an approach approach conflict moves toward one of the goals, it becomes more attractive and the other goal becomes less attractive
4
Q
What happens in the avoidance avoidance conflict when the person is unable to leave the field (avoid making a choice)?
A
If the person is unable to leave the field, the person will vacillate between the goals and then achieve equilibrium, the place where the forces pushing person away from each goal are equal.
5
Q
Neal Miller investigated Lewin’s approach avoidance conflict using rats. What did he find?
A
Miller trained the rats to run to the food box and then gave them an electric shock as they were eating. On the next trial they ran to the goal more slowly and stopped short of the goal. The point where the rats stopped was the point where they reached the equilibrium between approach and avoidance
6
Q
What is the overjustification hypothesis?
A
The overjustification hypothesis is the theory that if you reward someone for an activity they enjoy, it can undermine their interest in it. Based on distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. When rewarded for behav previously intrinsically motivated, behav becomesoverjustified or over rewarded. Intrinsic motivation loses power. Is predicted by self perception hypothesis: see selves doing behavior to get reward, conclude reason for behav was reward
7
Q
What is Bem’s self perception theory?
A
Bem’s self perception theory holds that when internal cues are weak or difficult to interpret, we infer our own thoughts and feelings by observing our behavior and the situation in which it takes place
8
Q
Fundamental attribution error
A
Underestimate impact of situations, overestimate impact of personal factors
9
Q
Actor-observer effect
A
When explaining own behavior, tendency to overestimate impact of environment instead of self
10
Q
Self serving bias
A
Attribute our successes to personal factors, failures to environment
11
Q
Weiner’s theory of attribution and emotion
A
Focuses on how different types of attributions (internal/external, stable/unstable, controllable/uncontrollable) affect feelings towards ourselves and others
12
Q
Belief in a just world
A
Tendency to blame victims of misfortune-need to believe we get what we deserve and deserve what we get
13
Q
False consensus bias
A
Overestimate degree to which others conform to us in terms of their opinions, attributes, behavior
14
Q
Central traits
A
Existence of certain trait dimensions (warm/cold) that, in our minds, are assoc. with many other characteristics
15
Q
Primacy effect
A
Place greater emphasis on first impressions than on info learned later
16
Q
Trait negativity bias
A
Weigh negative info more heavily than positive info in evaluating others
17
Q
Confirmation bias
A
Seek, interpret, create info that verifies our beliefs
18
Q
Self fulfilling prophecy
A
Our expectations about another person affect that person’s behavior
19
Q
Authoritarian personality
A
Belief that Individuals with a specific personality type are more likely to be prejudiced
20
Q
Social identity theory
A
Views prejudice as means of maintaining our self esteem through favoritism of ingroup, derogation of outgroup
21
Q
Sherif’s Robber cave study
A
Illustrated that creation of superordinate (jointly shared) goals is one way to reduce intergroup hostility
22
Q
Contact hypothesis
A
Under certain conditions, interpersonal contact between group members will reduce intergroup hostility
23
Q
Describe Schacter and Singer’s epinephrine study
A
Some got epinephrine (strong emotional arousal). One group was told about effects of epi, second was not, third got placebo. Subjects put in room with confederates who acted euphoric or angry. Subjects not told about effects of epi adopted affect of confed. Schacter saw this as support for his two factor theory of emotion (person must experience physiological arousal and then interpret that arousal)
24
Two factor theory of emotion
Schacter and Singer. People must first first experience phys arousal then interpret that arousal to experience emotion. Reactions of others help us make that interpretation.
25
Social comparison Theory
Festinger. Social comparison theory describes how the influence of other people affects our self-concept. When people are uncertain about their abilities or opinions as in when objective information is not available they evaluate themselves by comparing themselves to similar others.
26
According to Festinger's social comparison theory, when are downward comparisons more likely?
Downward comparisons may be more likely when our self-esteem is at stake. They are especially likely when individuals feel threatened, and in people who have low self-esteem. Also when a negative characteristic is being evaluated
27
What is self verification theory?
Self verification theory proposes that people need and seek confirmation of their self-concept whether their self-concept is positive or negative. People prefer to be right rather than happy.
28
What strategies do people employ according to self verification theory?
According to self verification theory, individuals often employ strategies such as selective interaction or choosing to interact with those who confirm their self concepts and avoiding those who don't
29
What are the implications for understanding depression with self verification theory?
One study found depressed people seek more negative feedback from others and or more rejected by others.
30
What is social role theory?
Social role theory proposes that men and women behave differently in social situations and act in accordance with social roles often along gender lines due to society's expectations
31
What is attribution theory?
Attribution theory is an approach to understanding how people perceive and think about the causes of what happens to them and others.
32
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency for people to infer more causation from the person than the environment or situation
33
What is the actor observer effect?
The actor observer effect is our tendency to overestimate the effect of environment and under estimate the effect of ourselves when explaining our behavior.
34
What is the exception to the actor observer effect?
The exception to the actor observer effect is with making attributions regarding the cause of our own successes. We explain successes with dispositional attributions and explain failures with situational factors
35
What is the self-serving bias?
The self-serving bias is the tendency to take credit for successes but blame situational factors for our failures. This may not apply to people who are depressed or have low self-esteem
36
What are the three factors in wieners attributional theory of motivation and emotion?
Wiener's theory is about attributions for success and failure. The three factors are:
1-internal or external
2-stable or unstable
3-controllable or uncontrollable
37
What are the two dimensions Wiener later added to his theory of attribution?
Wiener later added two more dimensions to his attributional theory. These are: intent and global. Intent is intentional and unintentional, and global is global and specific. Accomplishments attributed to intentional and specific causes produce the greatest pride. Negative behaviors attributed to specific and intentional causes produce the greatest blame,shame and guilt.
38
What notion is behind our tendency to blame the victim?
Lerner's notion of belief in a just world applies to individuals attributions for the misfortune of others. People need to believe that the world is just place so when bad things happen, we assume it is the person's fault
39
What are the four possible worldviews according to Derald Sue?
For possible worldviews according to Derald Sue are:1 internal control plus internal responsibility (success or failure is due to one's own efforts and abilities)
2 internal control plus External responsibility (we have abilities, but there are external factors such as discrimination which may affect our success)
3 external control plus internal responsibility (believed by marginalized individuals who feel they have little control over their fate but deny existence of racism and blame themselves)
4 external control plus external responsibility (feel they have little control over their lives and blame the system for it)
40
What is hostile attribution bias?
Hostile attribution bias is the tendency to believe that others are trying to cause harm even in neutral or unclear situations. Maybe due to deficits in social information processing
41
What is the false consensus bias?
The false consensus bias is the tendency to overestimate the degree to which others conform to us in terms of opinions, attributes and behavior.
42
What are central traits?
Asch theorized that certain characteristics imply more about a person than others. For example, warm/cold seems to be a central trait because we associate many other characteristics with these traits
43
What is the primacy effect?
When it comes to assessments, of ourselves or others, information presented early has more impact. This may persist even when opposing information is presented later. This does not occur in all cases. If the subject is warned not to jump to a conclusion or if an irrelevant activity intervenes between presentation of two conflicting descriptions, the more recent information is likely to have a greater impact.
44
What is trait negativity bias?
In evaluating others, we tend to weigh negative information more than positive information. This is called trait negativity bias
45
What is confirmation bias?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek, interpret and create information that verifies our existing beliefs.
46
What is Rosenhan's famous pseudo-patient study?
Roseland had confederates admit themselves to mental hospitals with the complaint that they were hearing voices. When they began to act normally, other patients recognized that they were not mentally ill but staff did not. This illustrates that we tend to view reality in terms of our beliefs and impressions about it
47
What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?
A person's expectations about the behavior of others and lead to fulfillment of those expectations.
48
What is Rosenthal and Jacobson's Pygmalion in the classroom study?
Rosenthal and Jacobson told teachers at an elementary school that certain pupils who were chosen at random were on the verge of an intellectual growth spurt. Eight months later, the researchers found that these children showed IQ improvement up to 30 points
49
What is the MUM effect?
The MUM effect refers to the tendency to keep MUM about undesirable messages and the best explanation for group members reluctance to provide negative feedback to one another
50
What is Rosen and Tesser's research on message transmission?
Message transmission was observed in different groups of people to determine how individuals respond to relaying a message that may be displeasing. Results showed emotional stress on the messenger-fear of being infected with the emotional distress of the recipient or having to assume an emotional state congruent with the bad news. Therefore there may be a decrease in transmission of bad news
51
What are stereotypes?
Stereotype is the cognitive belief that associates groups of people with certain traits
52
What is prejudice?
Prejudice refers to negative feelings about persons based solely on their group membership
53
What is discrimination?
Discrimination refers to behavior directed against persons due to their identification with a certain group
54
True or false: both males and females are likely to devalue the performance of unfamiliar but competent women who engage in tasks usually reserved for men.
True
55
What is the authoritarian personality based on work done by Adorno and his colleagues?
In studying individuals who were anti-Semitic, and racist , Adorno and his colleagues identified what they call the authoritarian personality also called prejudiced personality. They are conventional, rigid in their thinking, sexually inhibited, submissive to authority and intolerant of others who were different. Adorno developed the F scale (Fascism) to measure authoritarian personality traits
56
What is social identity theory?
According to social identity theory, each of us strives to maintain and enhance our self-esteem which has two components: a personal identity and a social identity. The latter is based on the groups we belong to. Social identity is enhanced both by believing our own group (the ingroup) is attractive and belittling members of the other groups (the outgroup). So prejudice and discrimination are an outgrowth of the drive to enhance her own self-esteem
57
True or false: perception alone of another group can produce discrimination. People must be categorized as members of an in group or outgroup before discrimination can occur
True
58
What is the Robbers Cave study?
Robbers Cave study dealt with the development and mitigation of group hostility through competition and cooperation. Boys at a summer camp were divided into two groups and manipulations were introduced to encourage competition between the groups. This led to intergroup hostility and ingroup coherence
59
In the Robbers Cave study, what had some effectiveness in reducing intergroup hostility?
The introduction of superordinate goals or shared goals that required cooperation between the two groups, was effective
60
How does Sherif, who did the Robbers Cave study, explain prejudice?
Sherif said the prejudice arises out of conflict between two groups. For example, hostility is produced between two groups when they want to achieve the same goal but cannot both have it
61
What is the jigsaw classroom as it relates to intergroup hostility?
Jigsaw classrooms are racially mixed classrooms where material is divided into subtopics and each student is responsible for learning one subtopic and teaching it to other students. Children in jigsaw classrooms were less prejudiced, like school more and have higher self-esteem.
62
What is the doll study as it relates to prejudice?
Kenneth Clark studied racial awareness and preference among African-American and white children in 1947. 2/3 prefer to play with a white doll more than an identical one that was painted brown. African-American children felt the brown dolls looked bad while white dolls were perceived as nice. 1/3 of African-American children picked the white doll when asked to pick one that looked like them. Clark's findings played an important role in the eventual desegregation of public schools
63
What is the contact hypothesis as it relates to stereotyping and prejudice?
The contact hypothesis holds that under certain conditions direct contact between members of hostile groups will reduce stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Research supports this but says certain conditions must be met.
1-contact must be between two equal status groups
2-contact involves personal contact between two groups
3-contact situation provides opportunities for mutual cooperative activity to achieve a joint goal
4-the social norms in the contact situation must favor and encourage cooperation, group equality and intergroup contact
64
What is the stereotype content model as it applies to prejudice?
The stereotype content model says the definition of prejudice as hate is too simple. It suggested prejudice directed at social groups is subject to the same structural factors that affect female male relations: relative status of groups and the nature of their interdependence (competitive or cooperative). These two factors would determine the content of stereotypic beliefs, the quality of emotions, and the kind of behaviors in response to out groups
65
Explain Glick and Fiske's ambivalent sexism theory
Ambivalent sexism theory describes two complementary cross culturally prevalent ideologies called hostile and benevolent sexism, both of which predict gender inequality.
66
What is hostile sexism as a part of ambivalent sexism theory?
Hostile sexism is an adversarial view of gender relations in which women are viewed negatively as being competitive and seeking to control men.
67
What is benevolent sexism as a part of ambivalent sexism theory?
Benevolent sexism is a subjectively positive view of gender relations, rewarding women for conforming to a patriarchal status quo and characterizing them as morally pure, to be protected and adored.
68
Are males or females more likely to rate mild to moderately severe or sexually ambiguous behaviors as sexual-harassment?
Females. Studies have found that males and females are equally likely to judge a sexually toned behavior as sexual harassment in severe cases.
69
What did Schachter find to be an important variable in people's level of need for affiliation?
Schachter found that birth order is an important factor in need for affiliation. First and only borns tend to have the highest need, and need decreases for later born children
70
What types of cases are an exception to Schachter's 'misery loves miserable company' rule?
In some fear arousing situations, such as where survival is at stake, individuals prefer to affiliate with people who have successfully been through the situation and are better informed
71
How do male and females differ in terms of patterns of affiliation?
Females converse more, more likely to talk to people of same sex, may affiliate more than males in public places.Female friendships seem to depend more on verbal communication, while male friendship may develop out of share activities.
72
What are some of the variables related to interpersonal attractiveness?
Physical proximity, similarity, complementarity, physical attractiveness, self disclosure, reciprocity, costs and benefits
73
What is the mere exposure effect?
Zajonc: repeated contact with something or someone is sufficient to increase attraction
74
What is complementarity?
a fit between opposites. It may increase attraction (ex-dominant person tends to prefer submissive mate)
75
What is the 'what is beautiful is good' bias?
Physically attractive people are generally believed to possess a variety of other desirable characteristics
76
When is self disclosure helpful in attraction?
Self disclosure increases liking if it is moderate, gradual, appropriate to the situation and reciprocal
77
What is reciprocity with regard to attraction?
We tend to like others who like us. But they must be moderately selective in their liking of others and the impact is greatest if the person initially reacts to us negatively but later warms up to us
78
What is social exchange theory?
Social exchange theory is an economic model of relationships. We seek relationships that offer us greater rewards than costs. In early relationship, maximizing our gains is important, but later both partners are concerned with joint gains.
79
What is Ellen Berscheid's emotion in relationship model?
It proposes that positive and negative emotions are most likely to arise in a relationship when one partner's behavior disconfirms the other partner's expectations. In early stage, fewer expectations (compared to long term relationship) so any action likely to be unexpected and thus elicit strong emotion. Over time, partners more interdependent. Things smooth if meeting each others' expectations. Also underestimate importance of relationship (take for granted). When there is a dramatic discrepancy between expectations and behavior (ex: affair), generates strong negative emotions (interrupts routines, long term plans, goals).
80
What is bystander apathy?
Tendency of bystanders to do nothing to help when someone is in distress. Greater number, less likely to help
81
What factors increase bystander apathy?
1diffusion of responsibility,2social influence (look to others for cues to proper behavior when situation is ambiguous), 3evaluation apprehension (fear action will be embarassing or lead to social disapproval).
82
What factors may increase a person's willingness to help when someone is in distress publicly?
1 victim is obviously in distress and problem not ambiguous
2 more likely to help if someone else has already intervened
3 more in rural environments than urban (people in cities may have stimulus overload and learned to tune out environment to avoid overload)
83
What are the cultural factors associated with prosocial behavior?
Prosocial behavior more likely in cultures where children were responsible for cooperating with other family members in performing many chores and particularly where older children were responsible for helping to care for younger children. Also more in bigger families due to need to share toys, space, parents' attention
84
What are non-zero-sum games?
Non-zero-sum games are games in which gains and losses do not sum to zero. When one side wins, the other doesn't lose. If they cooperate, they minimize their losses and maximize total gains. Research show most compete anyway
85
What is Prisoner's Dilemma?
It is a non-sum-zero game where pairs of subjects role play being suspects in a crime. They get interrogated separately by the DA and given 2 choices-confess, remain silent. Both silent-minor charges. 1 confess, other silent-confessor gets immunity and other gets severe punishment. Both confess-both severe sentences. both tend to confess to try to beat the other,so both lose
86
What are the two types of aggression?
Instrumental (behavior is means to some other end, such as football)
Hostile (venting negative emotions like fist fight during game). Soldier's killing an enemy can be either
87
What is learned aggression?
Aggression greatly influenced by learning. Bandura: children tend to imitate aggressive behav of adults-more important, powerful, successful, liked, etc the adult is, more likely to be imitated by children
88
What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Major theory re prevalence of aggression in society. Frustration always leads to aggression, aggression always preceded by frustration. if aggression inhibited by fear of punishment or lack of access to source of frustration, will be displaced to another target
89
How have modern researchers and theorists modified the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
frustration aggression hypothesis is seen as too simplistic. path between frustration and aggression also includes cognitions, attributions, prior learning, and person's characterological means of dealing with aversive stimuli. Ex-if people believe frustration is accidental and unintentional, likely won't respond aggressively.
90
What is the catharsis theory of aggression?
An aggressive act(or witnessing one) can reduce inclination to engage in other aggressive acts. Idea is that observing can drain away energy from violent tendencies. NOT supported by research..can INCREASE aggression
91
What is the connection between temperature and aggression?
Consistently shown that temperature and aggression related. High temperatures positively correlated with crime...less for nonviolent, more for violent. More batters hit by pitches in baseball games when temp high
92
What is deindividuation with regard to aggression?
people who would rarely or never be violent in individual interactions will display uncharacteristic violence and aggression under sway of crowd. Is due to deindividuation or sense of anonymity accompanied by loosening of restraints against deviant behavior. Attend less to internal stndards of conduct, react more to immediate situation, less sensitive to long term consequences of behavior. Crowds conducive to deindividuation but not necesary. Can be induced with loud music or other intense environmental stimuli that draws attention away from self. Can also happen if made to feel anonymous in lab setting
93
How do assigned roles influence aggression?
Zimbardo prison study. Assigned roles can have powerful effect on aggressive behavior. Random assignment as prisoner or guard. Prisoners soon became cruel and abusive esp when alone with prisoner. Prisoners rebellious at first, soon became passive, submissive. Experiment terminated early.
94
What is relational aggression?
Relational aggression is any behavior intended to harm someone by damaging or manipulating relationships with others. Two types: proactive, reactive. Proactive=behaviors are means of achieving goal such as excluding someone from group to maintain own status. Reactive=in response to provocation with intent to retaliate. Manifestations of relational aggression: Ignoring, teasing, exclusion, insults, malicious gossip, cyberbullying etc
Motivation varied, often includes power, fear, control, security, popularity.
95
Under what circumstances is conformity the greatest?
Conformity is greatest in groups of 3-4 or more, when person is pitted against a unanimous majority, in ambiguous situations, in highly cohesive groups and among individuals with low self esteem. BUT a dissenter can change whole group's opinion if their position is consistent and perceived as flexible (known a minority influence)
96
What is minority influence?
A dissenter can change a group's opinion if their position is consistent and perceived as flexible
97
What is psychological reactance?
Individuals won't conform if they feel their freedom of choice is threatened. Instead, they are likely to act in the opposite direction opposite to group pressures.
98
What are techniques to increase compliance?
foot in the door technique (start small, move to larger), door in face (start large with request that is bound to be rejected and then move to smaller one), low balling (secure agreement with request, then increase size of request by revealing hidden costs)
99
What did Milgram's study reveal about obedience to authority?
Milgram's study consisted of subjects administering shocks to learners when they missed a question. 2/3 administered what would have been fatal shocks. It showed we underestimate the degree to which we will obey an authority we perceive as legitimate.
100
What is social power?
Social power is the ability to influence others and resist their influence on us. there are six bases of social power: 1-reward power 2-coercive power 3-legitimate power 4-referent power 5-expert power and 6-informational power
101
Explain the 6 bases of social power
1-reward power (influence others thru rewards) 2-coercive power (ability to influence thru punishment). 3-legitimate power (recognition of power holder's valid authority) 4-referent power (based on desire to be like the holder of power) 5-expert power (do what they say because you believe they are an expert). 6-informational power (holder of power knows specific piece of information that others want to know)
102
What is social facilitation?
Social facilitation: presence of others improves performance on simple tasks but decreases performance on complex tasks
103
What is social loafing?
individual productivity declines when people are working together as a group. Happens more when task is boring, simple, requires same effort from everyone
104
What is group polarization?
tendency of individuals who start off with similar views to end up with more extreme position after discussion. Also known as risky shift effect if in risky direction
105
What is groupthink?
tendency to strive toward unanimity at the expense of rational decision making, often resulting in very poor decision. Esp likely to occur in highly cohesive groups with a strong leader, when group is under stress, and when group consists of people from similar backgrounds
106
When is groupthink more likely?
in highly cohesive groups with a strong leader, when group is under stress, when group consists of people from similar backgrounds, group isolation from others, lack of systematic procedures for making and reviewing decisions, newly formed groups
107
What is normative comformity?
going along with the group norm due to group pressure-wants to be accepted by the group, avoid criticism
108
true or false: conformity increases with group size
true, up to a point. after 3-4, the increase in influence is negligible
109
What personality characteristics are associated with high rates of conformity?
low self esteem, low intelligence, high need for approval, authoritarianism
110
Under what conditions will a minority influence a majority?
Minority's position is consistent, not perceived as rigid, psychologically unbalanced or biased, must not waver, not a member of a familiar social group arguing in favor of that group's interests. Cost: highly disliked
111
what are idiosyncrasy credits?
brownie points. To become a leader of a group or successfully change the majority opinion of the group, person must first conform to the group to establish credentials as competent insider. By doing this, they accumulate idiosyncrasy credits, after which attempts to deviate or become leader will be more accepted.
112
In Milgram's study, what percentage of the subjects went all the way to the fatal level?
65%
113
In follow up studies by Milgram, what happened when he moved the study from the Yale campus to a run down office building?
Compliance dropped from 65% to 48%
114
In follow up studies by Milgram, what happened when the experimenter was out of the room giving orders by telephone?
Compliance dropped to less than 25%. Also several subjects lied and said they were giving the shocks when they weren't
115
When subjects are made to feel that someone else will be held responsible for their actions, what happens? (Milgram)
They are more likely to obey the authority
116
T/F: mere presence of others increases drive/performance
true according to Zajonc
117
Why does the presence of others enhance performance on simple tasks but not complex ones?
Presence of others increases drive which energizes performance. So presence of others increases arousal, which enhances our tendency to perform the dominant behavior, or one elicited most quickly and easily by stimulus. On simple or well learned task, dominant response usually correct. Not on complex ones.
118
What are challenges to Zajonc's idea that the mere presence of others is enough to elicit social facilitation effects?
Some believe that presence of others enhances or impairs performance only when others are in position to evaluate that performance. Reviews of literature have failed to resolve the issue.
119
What are situations where social loafing is less likely to occur?
it is reduced or eliminated when participants believe their individual contribution is uniquely necessary for group to succeed. Also if people see task as personally relevant, challenging, or highly attractive.
120
What are the factors that are involved in whether or not group polarization occurs?
More persuasive arguments in favor of position members are exposed to, more likely risky shift will occur. Increases if members know each other's positions beforehand. Particularly likely if members consider group to be an ingroup
121
What are the symptoms of groupthink?
overestimation of group (illusion of invulnerability), closed mindedness, increased pressure towards uniformity.
122
Strategies to reduce groupthink
avoid insulation by bringing people who are not part of the group into the discussion. Increase leader's impartiality by having them refrain from taking strong position and encouraging criticism of their judgements. Encourage norm of critical review by creating independent subgroups to work on same policy issue, assigning one member role of devils advocate, holding second chance meeting where preliminary decision is reconsidered.
123
What are types of group tasks?
Additive (group product is sum of all contributions), conjunctive (group product determined by performance of weakest member). disjunctive (group performance is as good as the best performance of one of its members. compensatory (group product determined by performance of average member).
124
What 3 activities are involved in successful mediation?
1 modifying the physical and/or social structure of conflict (ex-ensure negotiations take place at neutral site, impose time limits) 2 modify issue structure by helping disputants clarify issues and identify alternative solutions 3 increase disuputants motivation to reach agreement by fostering trust between them, diffusing emotions, helping disputants see that agreement is possible
125
How is arbitration different from mediation?
An arbitrator has authority to strongly recommend or dictate a final agreement that disputants will abide by. Methods include voluntary, binding and final offer arbitration.
126
Under what conditions are attitudes good predictors of behavior?
when measures of the attitudes and behaviors are specific, when attitudes are well informed and when attitude is consistent with social norms
127
What is Heider's balance theory?
a state of balance exists when we agree with people we like and disagree with people we dislike. If we are in a state of imbalance, we may change our attitudes to restore the balance
128
When are one sided arguments more effective than two sided arguments?
if the audience tends to agree with the message, is uninformed about the arguments or uneducated.Two sided arguments are more effective with hostile, informed and educated audiences
129
What is the sleeper effect?
The tendency for the impact of a message from a credible source to decrease over time, while the impact of a message from a non-credible source increases over time. This is apparently because, over time, we forget the source of the message but remember the message itself
130
What tends to happen when someone is presented with a weak version of an opposing argument?
It can increase their resistance to that argument when presented at a later time
131
When is a persuasive argument most effective?
when there is a moderate discrepancy between the message and the audience's initial position
132
Messages that arouse high levels of fear tend to be ineffective unless:
they include specific instructions as to how to avoid the feared consequence
133
When people are forewarned that they will be targets of persuasive communication:
They are less likely to be persuaded
134
What is the social distance scale used for?
It is a self report measure to assess attitudes towards different ethnic groups.
135
What is the Semantic Differential Scale used for?
Subjects rate items based on favorableness, power or activity, three dimensions which research suggests are the primary ones of evaluating an entity
136
What is the Bogus Pipeline?
Subjects are hooked up to an elaborate machine that is supposed to assess their true feelings but does not. They are often more truthful when using this.
137
An attitude will predict behavior if:
the attitude is not inconsistent with social norms, and the person is able to follow through with their intentions to carry out the behavior
138
According to Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory, what are ways to reduce cognitive dissonance?
We must reduce inconsistency between attitudes, cognitions and behaviors. This could include changing an attitude, adding consonant cognitions, or reducing the importance of the conflict
139
What has research since Festinger's experiment found about cognitive dissonance?
Cooper and Fazio. Not all discrepancies between attitude and behavior produce dissonance. 4 steps are necessary. 1-attitude discrepant behavior must have negative consequences.2-person must feel they were reasonably responsible for their actions 3-discrepancy must product physiological arousal 4-person must attribute the arousal to their own behavior.
140
What is Heider's Balance Theory?
Heider's theory says that we are in balance if we have the same attitude toward a person or object as we have towards someone we like and different from that of someone we dislike. If imbalanced, we are motivated to either change our attitude or our feelings toward the person
141
Research on credibility says that a person's trustworthiness increases when:
they appear to argue against their own self interests, are not intentionally trying to change our views
142
With regard to attitude change, what is inoculation theory?
Most effective way to increase resistance is to build up defenses. Present a weak dose of other side's position before their presentation and it can build up the audience's defenses against it.
143
What is the recency effect?
If two messages are presented and there is a period of time that elapses between the two messages, the second message will be more effective due to the recency effect.
144
All other things being equal, a person with low self esteem will show ________ attitude change following a persuasive message than one with high self esteem (lesser or greater)
Greater
145
When is forewarning most likely to increase resistance to a persuasive message?
When the message is important
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What are the two routes to persuasive communication, according to the elaboration likelihood model of communication?
Central and peripheral. Central happens when people think carefully about the contents of a message. Peripheral is when they do not and focus on other cues.
Central route most likely when they are well informed and not distracted, when message is easily learned and stimulates listener to dwell on favorable thoughts. Peripheral: listeners distracted or uninformed (attractiveness of communicator, emotional tone of message, symbols)
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Some findings from social psych study of legal system:
jury s instruction to ignore evidence makes jury more likely to take that evidence into account
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Type A personality behaviors (hostility, aggression) more or less likely to get heart disease
more
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Decreasing effects of stress on physical health:
sense of personal control, high perceived levels of social support
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With regard to crowding, high density seems to ____ emotions
High density seems to increase whatever emotion person already has
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Effects of distraction on crowding:
Distraction decreases person's sense of feeling crowded
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What effect does crowding have on completion of tasks?
Increased performance on well-learned tasks, decreased performance on complex tasks
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Influence of gender on crowding:
Men tend to be more sensitive to and stressed by high density. Results inconsistenet
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Personal space-need increases until about age
21
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Greater personal space is required by people who are:
Low self esteem, high authoritarianism. Americans. some studies say men require more
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Most damaging ingredients in noise stress:
unpredictability, uncontrollability. Can increase aggression, reduce likelihood people will help others. can decrease school performance
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What effect does it have on juries if the judge gives instructions twice (before and after presentation of evidence)?
enhances juror recall and interpretation of evidence
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What effect does graphic evidence have in court cases?
Lowers juror's standards of proof, brought out pro-prosecution biases
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Under what conditions is physical attractiveness helpful to defendants?
they tend to get more lenient sentences unless they use their physical attractiveness to aid in commission of crime (harsher sentences)
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Are jurors more or less likely to vote for conviction after being exposed to pretrial negative publicity about the defendant?
More
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What effect does a judge's instruction to ignore inadmissible evidence have on the jury?
They tend to rely on it more
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What is hardiness and how does it relate to stress?
Hardiness is resistance to physical effects of stress. It has been linked to: 1-sense of personal control over events, 2-commitment (sense of purpose in one's work or activities), and 3-challenge (sense of healthy optimism in seeing life as a series of challenges that can make one stronger). Effects of first one is strongest
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With regard to stress, what is the buffer effect?
Under low stress, social support is not necessary for good health and doesn't affect it. High stress: high levels of support buffer or protect person from harmful effect of stress on physical health High PERCEIVED levels of social support serve to protect from effects of stress
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What is the Health Belief Model?
Developed in 50s to explain why people seemed unwilling to use preventive screening measures and tests. Based on two findings: behavior depends on value placed on particular goal. individual's likelihood of taking specific action is based on their estimate of whether or not it will achieve the goal
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In the Health Belief Model, what is the most influential variable for predicting and explaining health related behavior?
Perceived barriers (individual weighs the action's effectiveness against perceptions that it may be expensive, dangerous (side effects, for example), unpleasant, inconvenient, time consuming, etc
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What is terror management theory?
Anxiety or terror results from the conscious awareness human beings have of the inevitability of their death. They utilize two things to manage the anxiety: a cultural worldview and self esteem. Others' agreement with one's own worldview and self concept (consensual validation) is critical for effectiveness of cultural worldviews and self esteem. An outside group (a person or differing ideas that clash) may threaten the validation system (religion, political ideology) that provides sense of security
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Increased mortality salience (encountering or recently thinking about death) results in people:
- strongly connecting to their worldview elements (religious beliefs, sense of national pride),
- an increased emergence of prejudices against an outside group,
- longing for structure, order, acceptance of quick, easy answers to problems,
- foregoing, careful consideration of all options
