A.C. 2.1- BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

Question 1

What are the 2 types of biological theories?

Answer 1

Genetic and physiological

Question 2

What are genetic theories?

Answer 2

These theories suggest that criminals are born with a predisposition (tendency) to commit crime because it is in their genes

Question 3

What is a physiological theories?

Answer 3

These theories suggest that a criminal can be identified through their physical features and in some theories they can identify the crime carried out just from physical characteristics

Question 4

Jacobs XYY syndrome overview (genetic theory)

Answer 4

This is a rare chromosomal disorder that affects males and is caused by the presence of an extra Y chromosome

Question 5

Jacobs XYY syndrome factors

Answer 5

• Individuals usually experience higher levels of testosterone; this can cause increased aggression
• These individuals can also be very tall and have a higher than average BMI
• They can also experience severe acne
• More symptoms could be behavioral problems (e.g. impulsivity) or learning disabilities
• Individuals can also lack intelligence (in the range of average to low)
• They may also be immature or unstable

Question 6

Jacobs XYY syndrome link to criminality

Answer 6

This theory suggest that some crime might be attributable to a chromosomal abnormality. 8 different studies shows that violent male offenders showed to have a substantially higher testosterone level. There was similar findings that showed that adolescent offenders that were verbally aggressive and had impulsive behavior and tendencies also had very strong links to high testosterone levels. In prisons, XYY men are over-represented (15 in 1000) but in the general public there is only 1 in 1000. This statistic could be used as evidence that XYY causes criminal behaviour because there are more XYY men in prison than in the general public

Question 7

Jacobs XYY case study

Answer 7

The murder of Lesley Molseed and Stefan Kizsko.
- Lesley was murdered and sexually assaulted. Because of Stefan’s learning and behavior disorders the town immediately pointed figures at him because he was different and stood out. Due to these disorders, although he was not guilty, he said he was because he couldn’t deal with the pressure of the interviews and questioning. He was imprisoned for 16 years before it was found he had XYY syndrome and this can sometimes make the men infertile and Kizsko was. This meant he had not assaulted Molseed and the investigation was reopened and finally Ronald Castree was found and incarcerated for the murder and assault.

It is also thought that John Wayne Gacy could have also been a XYY man.

Question 8

Evaluation of the XYY theory

Answer 8

Strengths-
- 15/1000 in prison with XYY vs 1/1000 in general population
- Alder et al- suggests aggressive behaviour is partly determined by genetics

Weaknesses-
- The study looked at men imprisoned in secure psychiatric hospitals (could be unrepresentative)
- It ignores the behaviourist approach (we learn our behaviour/nurture)

Question 9

Why can’t XYY theory be used for all crime?

Answer 9

It only associates violent and physical crime with XYY and ignores white collar crime and cyber or technological crime. This also includes corporate crime

Question 10

Twin and adoption studies overview (genetic theory)

Answer 10

These studies relate to the nature vs nurture debate and try to work out of criminality stems from the environment you are in or if its about who your biological parents are or whether it’s physiological or psychological makeup of the individual or their social context that is more important in influencing their behavior

Question 11

Twin studies overview (genetic theory)

Answer 11

This study supports the idea that a heritable trait may increase the risk of criminal behaviour. Twins share genetic makeup but may differ in their wider social experience.

Question 12

What are identical twins called and facts?

Answer 12

Monozygotic twins (MZ twins) and they are genetically identical because they are the product of a single egg and a single sperm that have split in two. Their genes are 100% similar

Question 13

What are non-identical twins called and facts?

Answer 13

Dizygotic twins (DZ twins) and these are the product of two eggs that are fertilised at the same time by two different sperm and so are genetically alike as brothers and sisters born at different times. Their genes are 50% similar

Question 14

How were the twin studies conducted?

Answer 14

Christiansen (1977) examined over 3,500 twin pairs in Denmark and identified concordance rates or criminal behaviour as follows:
- male MZ twins- 35% were criminal
- female MZ twins- 21% were criminal
- male DZ twins- 13% were criminal
- female DZ twin- 8% were criminal

This shows that MZ twins are more likely to both commit a crime than DZ twins are

Question 15

Evaluation of the twin studies

Answer 15

Strengths-
- The studies comparing MZ and DZ twins suggest a much higher concordance from criminal behaviour in MZ twins. Since they share 100% of their genes rather than 50%, this implies a genetic component to criminality

Weaknesses-
- MZ twins will likely look very similar or the same so the are likely to be treated the same which will mean that the similarities in behaviour may be the result of behvaiourism/ reinforcement/ social learning theory rather than genes. Shows nurture over nature
- MZ twins are always the same gender unlike DZ twins and this might also account for the similarities in criminal behaviour- because they are treated the same
- Twins are often brought up in the same household at the same time and this could also account for similarities
- Theories are also never 100% correct meaning it could be more than genetics responsible for criminal behaviour
- These studies almost always have small samples making hem unrepresentative of the general population
- Some of the early studies also lack scientific validity because they were not carefully controlled
- May not include very many IVF twins or egg donor twins

Question 16

Adoption studies overview (genetic theory)

Answer 16

These studies provide a natural experiment to test the existence and strength of inherited predispositions and the nature/nurture debate. Adoptees are separated at birth from their biological parents. Thus, similarities between the adoptees and biological parents can be regarded as estimates of of genetic influences, while similarities between the adoptee and the adoptive parents may be thought of as estimates of environmental influences. Once grown up, for example, an adoptive child’s criminal record of reoffending history can be compared with the biological and adoptive parents records in an attempt to isolate the more important source of influence.

Question 17

What did Crowe (1972) find?

Answer 17

He compared adopted children whos biological mum had a criminal record and adopted children whos biological mum didn’t have a criminal record. He found that if the bio mum had a criminal record, 50% of the adopted children also had a criminal record by the time they were 18. Where as, those who mum had no criminal record, 5% of them had a criminal record by 18. This shows even if the environment has changed, children seemed biologically predisposed to criminality.

Question 18

Evaluation of the adoption studies

Answer 18

Strength-
- Adopted children are exposed to different environments to their biological family so it is easier to separate biological and environmental factors
- Studies concluded that there is a correlation between adopted children and their biological parents

Weaknesses-
- Age of adoption may mean some children have already been influenced by their biological parents or foster environment
- Information about biological parents isn’t always available
- The adoption process is not always random and often children are placed with parents similar biological families

Question 19

Who is Charles Whitman?

Answer 19

In 1966, Charles (The Texas Sniper) killed his wife and mother in their homes and then went on to kill another 14 people and wound 32 people by using a range of firearms to shoot at people from the tower located in the University of Texas campus. He had been in the US marines and only stopped shooting once he was shot dead by the Texas police. In his autopsy it was apparent that he had a brain tumor about the size of an almond on his amygdala which is the part of the brain responsible for fight or flight reactions and regulates emotions.

Question 20

Lombroso’s ‘born a criminal’ theory overview (physiological)

Answer 20

• Lombroso is regarded the ‘father of modern criminology’
• He believed people were born criminal and this could be seen by physical features that these people had
• This relied on things like phrenology (measuring the size of someone’s head)
• He believed that most criminality was inherited

Question 21

What types of physical features did Lombroso think showed someone was criminal?

Answer 21

• Long sloping foreheads
• Large jaws or forward projection of jaw, receding chin
• Twisted nose
• Long arms relative to lower limbs
• Excessive cheekbones
• Large chins an lips
• Large monkey like ears
• Excessive wrinkles on skin
• Prominent eyebrow arches
• Large eye sockets
• Extremely acute eyesight

Question 22

What does atavistic mean?

Answer 22

Atavistic means ancestor. To have an atavistic characteristic, means to have characteristics from ancestors.

Question 23

Evaluation of Lombroso’s theory

Answer 23

Strengths-
- Started other researchers on the path to determine a hereditary source for criminal behaviour
- Showed importance of examining clinical and historical records of crime
- He was among the first to apply scientific principles to the collection of data and to use statistical techniques in his data analysis

Weaknesses-
- Not representative because he only studied prisoners and the insane
- Biased sample as a result of confirmation bias
- Fails to consider that ordinary people may share some of these ‘criminal characteristics’
- Can lead to things like racial profiling and eugenics policies
- Some criminals who do not have many of these features may not become a suspect
- This is now considered discredited

Question 24

What else did Lombroso suggest?

Answer 24

He said that criminals were similar to apes (long arms) or still had primitive features. This included pain tolerance and Lombroso believed criminals had a lower pain tolerance which is why he thought they would be more likely to have tattoos.

Question 25

What was the Chinese study that proved that Lombroso’s theory may be partly correct?

Answer 25

A university in China, put 1,856 ID photos (a mix of criminals and non-criminals) in an artificial intelligence programme and they found that the programme wrongly flagged innocent men only 6% of the time but correctly identified 83% of the real criminals.

This study did mean Lombroso’s theory was seen as more credible, however this isn’t necessarily a good thing because if it becomes too relied upon, real criminals who do not necessarily have these features may go unnoticed.

Question 26

Sheldon’s theory of somatotypes overview (physiological)

Answer 26

This theory is based on Lombroso’s idea. However, Sheldon believed that criminals could be identified by body type. Sheldon came up with 3 different body types and these were endomorphic, ectomorphic and mesomorphic.

Question 27

What is endomorphic?

Answer 27

This is the body type that is seen as fat and soft and tend to be sociable and relaxed.

Question 28

What is ectomorphic?

Answer 28

These are thin and fragile and are introverted and restrained.

Question 29

What is mesomorphic?

Answer 29

These are muscular and hard and tend to be aggressive and adventurous.

Question 30

How did Sheldon come up with this theory?

Answer 30

He studied and examined photos of the front, side and back of 4,000 scantily clad men and put forward that there were 3 body types or somatotypes.

Question 31

What did Sheldon find?

Answer 31

He found, through a series of studies, that criminals prone to committing violent or aggressive crimes were mesomorphic. He found this because this body type is more muscular which in turn made them more self-assertive. This contrasted ectomorphs as these were the body type least likely to commit a violent or aggressive act.

Question 32

What crimes are ectomorphs or endomorphs more likely to commit?

Answer 32

Cyber crimes, fraud, burglary or vehicle offenses and so on

Question 33

Why else might mesomorphs commit crimes?

Answer 33

Because they have been labelled to commit crimes, they are more likely to live up to this label and become criminal.

Question 34

Evaluation of Sheldon’s theory of somatotypes

Answer 34

Strengths-
- Research evidence- Sheldon assessed the somatotypes of samples of college students and delinquents from photographs. Each photo was rated from 1 (low) to 7 (high). It emerged that the delinquents had a higher mean mesomorphy rating than the college students (4.6 VS 3.8), supporting Sheldon’s claims about the link between body type and criminality.
- A reanalysis by Hart et al (1982) found that the most seriously delinquent of Sheldon’s sample had a mean mesomorphy rating of 5, adding further support of the theory

Weaknesses-
- Doesn’t explain criminality in non-mesomorphic somatotype
- Criminal activity might require a mesomorphic build
- Social class may be a missing factor here- working classes are more likely to do manual work and therefore acquire an athletic build
- Labelling might play a significant part