aba midterm Flashcards
why is it important to discuss the basic principles?
-the basic principles are the foundation for the ABA field
-all behaviorists and BAs agree on the 4 basic principles
-BCBAs take the basic principles and apply them to a specific individual/circumstance/environment, etc
-there is not a “toolbox” to choose from - each is individualized
-knowing the basic principles well allows a BCBA to apply them in this way which leads to more effective analyses and interventions
what are the 4 basic principles?
- reinforcement
- extinction
- punishment
- stimulus control
reinforcement
when a consequence strengthens a bx it follows making it more likely to occur, under similar circumstances, in the future
-determined ONLY by its effect
-reinforcement (principle): covers both positive and negative reinforcement, explains the change in bx
-reinforcement (procedure): application of the principle in order to change bx
-positive reinforcement: addition of a favorable stimulus
-negative reinforcement: removal of an aversive stimulus
both result in strengthening of the bx that was followed by the consequence
negative reinforcement - escape & avoidance
escape: terminates existing aversive stimulus
avoidance: prevents aversive stimulus from occurring
social vs automatic reinforcement
social: when bx produces a reinforcing consequence through the actions of another person
automatic: when bx produces a reinforcing consequence through direct contact with the physical environment
unconditioned vs conditioned reinforcement
unconditioned (primary): no prior experience with the stimulus needed for it to function as the reinforcement (food, water, oxygen, sleep)
conditioned (secondary): once neutral; functions as reinforcer after having been paired with other reinforcers
generalized conditioned reinforcer: does not rely on an establishing operation to function as a reinforcer (not likely to satiate), can be traded in for a host of other reinforcers
factors that influence reinforcement effectiveness
-immediacy: deliver right away to reduce risk of reinforcing adjunctive bx
-contingency: specifically delivered contingent on a bx
-MOs: more effective if person has been deprived for some time
-magnitude: must be of sufficient value to change bx
-individual difference: reinforcers vary from person to person
extinction
withholding reinforcement for a previously reinforced bx, which decreases the future frequency of bx
-bx must occur but have absolutely no effect on the environment
-if bx does change environment in some way, no matter how small, its not extinction
-unwanted effects of extinction: extinction burst, spontaneous recovery, variability
-extinction of positively reinforced bx, negatively reinforced bx, automatically reinforced bx
factors that influence extinction
-reinforcement schedule before
-occurrence of reinforcement after
punishment
-when a consequence weakens a bx making it less likely to occur, under similar circumstances, in the future
-determined only by its effect
-punishment (principle): cover both positive and negative punishment, explains change in bx
-punishment (procedure): application of principle in order to change bx
-positive punishment: addition of aversive stimulus
-negative punishment: removal of favorable stimulus
both result in weakening of the bx that was followed by the consequence
unconditioned vs conditioned punishment
-unconditioned (primary): no prior experience with the stimulus needed for it to function as punishment (pain, extreme heat/cold)
-conditioned (secondary): once neutral; functions as punisher after having been paired with other punishers
-generalized conditioned punisher: does not rely on an establishing operation to function as a punisher (not likely to satiate), has been paired with a host of other punishers (eg “no”)
unwanted effects of punishment
-emotional/aggressive reactions
-escape and avoidance
-negative reinforcement of punisher’s bx
-undesirable modeling
-behavioral contrast
-emergence of other bxs within response class
considerations for punishment
-ethical issues
-risk-benefit analysis
-difference between punishment and extinction
(trajectory of bx change, actual contingency and history of reinforcement)
stimulus control (motivating operations)
-establishing operations: makes reinforcer more potent, makes bx that produces the reinforcer more likely
-abolishing operations: makes reinforcer less potent, makes bx that produces reinforcement less likely, satiation
-stimulus control looks at antecedents or controlling variables
-bx is more likely to occur in the presence of a specific antecedent stimulus (less likely to occur in its absence)
what is the purpose & what do we do with the info gained from preference assessments?
purpose is to identify preferences, potential reinforcers
-see what the individual approaches, manipulates, or consumes
-must do PAs often b/c preferences change often
-with results, we use the most preferred item as a reinforcer contingent on a BX and see if the BX increases or decreases
single stimulus PA
-potential reinforcers are presented, one at a time
-see whether they approach the stimulus or not
-present each stimulus multiple times then calculate percentage of times that they approached each stimulus
-used most when individual has trouble with multiple options present (gets overwhelmed, can’t choose, etc)
free operant PA
-mostly just observing preferences, may organize slightly/give options
-unrestricted access to various items and activities
-recording duration of engagement with each item to determine preference
-can be used for individuals who display problem BX when items are taken away, so no items are removed during trial
multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) PA
-all stimuli are presented at the same time and as client picks items they are taken away from the options
-first item picked is typically a stronger reinforcer for the person
-pick until all items have been chosen
-done multiple times to see if item order stays the same
paired stimulus/forced choice PA
-2 reinforcers are presented at the same time and observer records which item is selected
-each potential reinforcer is presented with every other stimulus multiple times
-calculate percentage of times each item was chosen
multiple stimulus with replacement (MSW)
-used when client struggles to select preferred items when presented with many options
-used when client shows challenging BX when items are taken away
-more time consuming that MSWO
-place all potential reinforcers in front of client, allow them to select one
-once they select item, it stays in the options (replace it with another of same thing if edible)
-replace the unselected items with new ones during each trial
considerations about which type of PA to use
-does challenging bx occur when preferred items are taken away? use MSWO
-do they have trouble selecting from lots of options? use forced choice/paired or single stimulus
-most time efficient option is MSWO
systematically vary stimuli - why important
-means to change or manipulate different aspects of a stimulus in a controlled way to study how changes affect a response or bx
-stimuli must be systematically varied in an FA to observe changes that may occur
what is the purpose of an FBA
to identify what is maintaining a bc - we cannot assume anything before conducting an assessment
-once we know what the function of a bx is, we can create an intervention to address and replace the challenging bx
*before FBA - rule out medical explanations and simple/logical reasons (parsimony)
indirect assessment
purpose: to obtain a data sheet with bxs of concern and operational definitions, get info on preferences/triggers/setting events, etc, - SHOULD BE GETTING THE BEGINNINGS OF A CLINICAL FORMULATION
record review: sift through records to determine the best people to interview, referral concerns, setting events, triggers signals, functions, preferences, etc - goal is to supplement info from interviews, rating scales, etc
interviews: can conduct 1 or multiple, structured vs semi-structured, can interview actual client - goal is to identify main concerns and begin to identify contextual variables
rating scales: series of questions to get additional info, separate scale for each challenging bx (FAST, MAS) - goal is to begin to get an idea of functions of bx
operational definitions
2 types: function based & topography based
-function based: definition involves fx of bx
-topography based: definition describes what bx looks like
what is included: provide accurate, complete, & concise descriptions of bx to be changed/measured
why important: add to the understanding of the bx, ensure consistency and objectivity in research (make sure everyone is measuring the same things)
must be: objective, clear, complete with boundaries, observable and measurable (frequency/rate & duration)
direct assessment
purpose: to observe naturally occuring bx’s
baseline data: data sheet in place to gather baseline to compare to post-intervention data (tx effectiveness); ABC data can create a narrative (fill in info) or structured data sheet (check boxes) or can use a formal tool, calculate conditional probabilities
scatter plot: determine time of day that challenging bx occurs most often, determine time patterns but doesn’t tell frequency/duration, etc
conditional probabilities: calculate how often a given antecedent or consequence is occuring in relation to the target bx and others - helps refine hypotheses
reactivity & why its important
-effects that an assessment has over the bx being assessed
-people act differently in the presence of different/new people and when they think they are being observed
-can occur during self-observation as well
-important to understand bc the bx recorded during this time may not be representative of the level of the bx occuring in the absence of the observer
-change in bx is usually only temporary
ways to minimize:
-wait for the client to become accustomed to the observer
-record bx without client knowing they are being observed (observation windows or participant observer)
-use video recording instead of observer (can be hidden)
functional analysis
purpose: to create well defined conditions after observing bx under well-defined test and control conditions
test conditions: the reinforcer (the condition) is delivered contingent on the challenging bx
control conditions: reinforcers are readily available
how to know which variable is the function of bx: When analyzing the results of an FA, we can identify which consequence is reinforcing the challenging bx on a graph bc it is the data path that is the highest
-test and control condition needs to be in every FA - conditions are different for every individual situation
-traditional test conditions: social negative reinforcement (escape from demands), automatic reinforcement (alone), & social positive reinforcement (contingent attention)
limitations of FA
-constraints on time available for assessment
-risk posed by severe problem bx
-inability to exert tight control over environmental conditions (especially in a home with others)
-to address these limitations, several procedural variations have been developed
-no matter what variation of an FA we use, we should tailor the conditions to reflect variables in the hypothesis and environment
developing a statement of function
what info to include: what the hypothesized function of the bx is
different functions:
-social positive
-social negative
-automatic positive
-automatic negative
-attention
-things/activities
-sensory stimulation
*we behave in order to get access to something or get out of something/away from aversive stimuli
interventions are function based - why important?
-interventions must be function based because it is crucial for addressing the reasons why a bx is occuring
-targeting the function in the intervention ensures that strategies are in place to address the causes and promote lasting change
-interventions are tailored to the individual’s situation and we cannot assume what is maintaining a bx without tests
how do basic principles relate to interventions - how to create interventions
-tailoring the basic principles to the individual, the bx and the environment to create an intervention
-replacement skills that serve the same function as challenging bx must be taught
-always choose least restrictive and most effective intervention
-antecedent interventions are least restrictive
-reinforcement & punishment/extinction with restrictive procedures is most restrictive
differential reinforcement (DR)
what is it: involves withholding reinforcement for the challenging bx and providing reinforcement for the desirable bx
2 basic principles: reinforcement and extinction (must always be used together)
different types: DRA, DRI (type of DRA), DRO, DRL (full session or spaced-responding)
functional communication
-the most common category of alternative bx (functional communication training/FCT AKA DRC) - a DRA
-teaching communication that is functionally equivalent to a challenging bx in hopes of replacing the challenging bx with communication
-people communicate in many different ways (verbal, nonverbal, sounds, signs, AAC, expressions, bx)
what do we mean by socially acceptable?
-behaviors, actions, or situations that are generally considered appropriate, normal, and approved of within a particular social group or culture
different types of communication
-verbal: vocal, written, sign, gestures, devices, picture books, etc
-nonverbal
-AAC
-ASL/signing
-gestures
-expressions
-behavior
-different languages
considerations when teaching communication
-intellectual disability
-use of hands for signing
-does family know ASL?
-can they afford AAC?
-AAC can be lost - ASL cannot
-if person is nonverbal, trying to teach verbal communication/words is not acceptable replacement skill
what is a discriminative stimulus (SD)?
stimulus that signals the availability of a reinforcement
-sometimes desirable bx doesn’t occur bc SD isn’t seen
ex: green light at stop light is SD for being able to drive/go
how can you arrange a discriminative stimulus to make a desirable bx more likely to occur? ex
-antecedent interventions
-adding or removing a SD
-clear cues
-use establishing operations (environmental variables that increase the value of reinforcer)
-make engaging in desirable bx more reinforcing than not engaging
-present abolishing operations to reduce undesirable bx’s (environmental variables that decrease the value of reinforcer)
-increase or decrease response effort
ex: only have healthy foods in the house is desirable bx is to eat healthier - put junk foods in hardly reached place, eat big meal before going grocery shopping to reduce chance of buying unnecessary snacks, etc
what is an establishing operation?
an environmental variable that increases the value of a reinforcement
ex: working in the sun increases the value of water as a reinforcer (water is reinforcer)
what is an abolishing operation?
an environmental variable that decreases the value of a reinforcement
ex: drinking water abolishes water as a reinforcer (decreases value of water to person)
how can you arrange things to increase the value of a reinforcer? to decrease value? examples of both
-EO’s increase desirable bx
-AO’s decrease challenging bx
-add or remove SD’s/cues (when reinforcement is easily available it increases challenging bx)
-make engaging in desirable bx more reinforcing than not engaging
-increase or decrease response effort
(increase effort for undesirable bx, decrease effort for desirable bx)
-make stimulus more available or reinforce/make a bx easier to do, then desirable bx will increase (opposite is true)
what is response effort?
-the amount of effort an individual must expend to perform a specific behavior, which directly impacts the likelihood of that behavior occurring
-more effort = less likely to occur
-less effort = more likely to occur
-people will always do the easier option
ex: put junk food in high cabinet and healthy food on counter
-more effort to get junk food = less likely to get it/eat it
DRA (alternative bx)
-used to inc frequency of a desirable bx & dec undesirable bx
-desirable bx is reinforced every time it occurs
-undesirable bx is not reinforced
-combined reinforcement and extinction
when to use DRA:
-wanting to inc rate of desirable bx
-does bx occur already occasionally
-do you have access to a reinforcer that you can deliver when bx occurs
DRI (incompatible bx)
-a version of DRA
-when alternative behavior is physically incompatible with the problem behavior and, therefore, the two behaviors cannot occur at the same time
-ex: if the problem behavior is head slapping, in which individuals slap themselves on the side of the head with their hands, any alternative behavior involving the use of the hands would be an incompatible behavior. Playing with toys or completing tasks that involve the manipulation of materials with their hands would be examples of incompatible behaviors that could be reinforced to replace the head slapping in a DRI procedure
DRO (other bx)
-reinforcers contingent on absence of challenging bx
-reinforcer is no longer delivered after the problem behavior (extinction), but the reinforcer is delivered after an interval of time in which the problem behavior does not occur
-includes time interval: how long client must go without challenging bx occuring to receive reinforcement (if problem bx occurs often, interval must be shorter)
DRL (low rates of responding) & full session / spaced responding
-reinforcer is delivered contingent on a lower rate of responding during a period of time
-do not reinforce the absence of the bx, just a lower rate of the problem bx
-full session: reinforcement is delivered if fewer than a specified number of responses occur in a period of time
-spaced responding: there must be a specified amount of time between responses for the reinforcer to be delivered; objective is to pace the behavior (if bx occurs before end of interval, bx is not reinforced & interval resets)
