A&P Textbook Chapters 1-5 Flashcards
Explain what causes decompression sickness (DCS) and how it is treated. How does diving in mountain lakes compare to diving at sea level, in terms of DCS?
DCS is caused by exposure to an environment where the pressure is rapidly decreasing. This causes dissolved gases (mainly nitrogen) to bubble out of solution in the blood (think of opening a can of soda). DCS mostly affects divers, but also airline pilots in unpressurized cabins. DCS is treated by immediately administering pure oxygen, followed by placement in a hyperbaric chamber. DCS is more likely to happen after diving in a mountain lake.
What are the 2 main types of dense connective tissue? What is the main difference between them?
Regular = fiber orientation is NOT random, so the tissue is really strong in a particular direction. Examples: ligaments and tendons.
Irregular = fiber orientation IS random, so the tissue is moderately strong in every direction. Example: dermis of skin.
Describe fourth-degree burns.
It extends all the way to the underlying muscle or bone.
What is the difference between simple, stratified, and pseudostratified?
Simple = when every cell rests on the basal lamina.
Stratified = there is more than one layer of cells.
Pseudostratified = when there is only one layer of cells, but they are irregularly shaped, so they give the appearance of more than one layer.
Define “hole”, in the context of bones.
A hole is an opening or groove in the bone that allows blood vessels and nerves to enter the bone.
What is the reticular lamina? Describe it in detail.
It is a layer of connective tissue that, together with the basal lamina, forms the basement membrane. It is composed of collagen, secreted by fibroblasts.
Which germ layer forms the skeletal system?
Mesoderm
Which germ layer forms the heart?
Mesoderm
What are basal cells? What do they do? Where are they found?
Basal cells are the precursors to keratinocytes. They are found in the stratum basale. They are constantly dividing (by mitosis) to create new cells, which then push the older cells outward.
What is the function of desmosomes?
They link adjacent cells together.
Which germ layer forms the nails?
Ectoderm
Name the different types of anchoring junctions.
Desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and adherens.
Define pleura.
It is the serous membrane that surrounds the lungs in the pleural cavity.
What is the function of the hypodermis?
It connects the skin to the underlying fascia (fibrous tissue) of the muscles and bones.
Describe compact bone.
It is the denser, stronger type of bone tissue. It is found in the diaphyses of long bones. The functional unit of compact bone is called an osteon.
Define mesothelium.
Simple squamous epithelium that forms the surface layer of the serous membranes.
What is the basal lamina? Describe it in detail.
It is a layer of extracellular matrix that the epithelium sits on. It is a mixture of glycoproteins and collagen. It is secreted by epithelial cells. It constitutes a portion of the basement membrane. It separates the epithelium from the underlying connective tissue.
Describe the anatomy of flat bones.
They contain a layer of diploë (spongy bone), which is sandwiched between two thin layers of compact bone. This dual layer provides extra protection to the internal organs underneath (if the outer layer of compact bone becomes fractured, the inner layer still provides protection).
What is the function of hemidesmosomes?
They link cells to the ECM.
How do RBCs uptake iron from the bloodstream?
They have transferrin receptors on their PMs. These receptors bind to the iron-transferrin complex, and bring the iron in via receptor-mediated endocytosis.
What is the transverse plane?
It is the plane that divides the body horizontally into upper and lower halves.
What is the metaphysis?
It is the narrow area of a long bone, where the diaphysis and the epiphysis meets.
It contains the epiphyseal plate.
How do calluses form?
The basal stem cells in the stratum basale are triggered to divide more. Over time, this causes the skin to thicken.
Describe synovial membranes.
They are a type of connective tissue membrane that lines the cavity inside a freely movable joint.
Define cutaneous membrane.
It is another name for the skin (an epithelial membrane).
What is the typical function of simple columnar epithelium?
Secretion and absorption.
What type of cell responds to vibration?
Pacinian corpuscles (lamellated corpuscles).
Which germ layer forms the serous membranes?
Mesoderm
Which germ layer forms the anus?
Ectoderm
What is the typical function of stratified epithelium?
It protects against physical and chemical damage.
What is jaundice?
The yellowing of the skin, due to accumulation of bile and bilirubin (caused by liver damage, blockage of bile duct, or excessive breakdown of RBCs).
Describe the main types of sweat glands.
Eccrine glands produce hypotonic sweat for thermoregulation.
Apocrine glands are found in the groin and armpit areas. In addition to water and salt, they secrete organic compounds that thicken the sweat. These compounds are broken down by bacteria, resulting in odor.
Name the 2 types of connective tissue proper. What is the major difference between them?
Loose connective tissue and Dense connective tissue. Dense contains more collagen fibers than Loose does. This means that Dense is more resistant to stretching.
What does the prefix “chole-“ mean?
Bile.
(cholesterol is a component of bile acids)
Name the structural protein found in desmosomes.
Cadherin.
Describe the functions of the skin.
It protects against water loss and abrasion. It senses the environment. It helps with thermoregulation (via sweat and vasoconstriction). It synthesizes vitamin D.
Name the 2 layers of the dermis, from deep to superficial. Which one is thicker?
Reticular layer (deep; thicker).
Papillary layer (superficial; thinner).
Which germ layer forms epithelial cells?
All three of them.
What is the function of bone projections?
They serve as attachment points for tendons and ligaments.
Describe the function(s) of flat bones. Where are they found?
They serve as attachment points for muscles, and also protect some organs.
Examples: skull, scapulae, sternum, and ribs.
Describe the function(s) of short bones. Where are they found?
They provide stability, support, and some limited motion.
They are found in the carpals and tarsals.
What is a keloid?
It is a type of scar that is raised. It is caused by an overproduction of scar tissue.
Define “ground substance”.
It is the major component of extra-cellular matrix. It is often crisscrossed by protein fibers. It is usually a fluid, but can be mineralized and solid (example = bones).
Describe branched glands.
In a branched gland, the duct is connected to more than one secretory group of cells.
Does bone tissue have a good supply of capillaries? Why or why not?
Yes, because it needs to be in contact with blood.
What are two alternate names for the hypodermis?
The subcutaneous layer, or the superficial fascia.
Which germ layer forms the kidneys?
Mesoderm
Define periosteum.
It is a fibrous membrane that covers the outer surface of bone. It contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves.
What would happen if bones did not contain collagen?
They would be very brittle (the collagen makes bones flexible so they are not brittle).
Describe areolar tissue.
It is not very specialized. It contains lots of different cell types and fiber types distributed in a random, web-like fashion.
What are dermal papillae? Where are they found?
Dermal papillae are finger-like projections of the papillary layer of the dermis into the epidermis.
Describe the composition of connective tissue membranes.
They are formed solely from connective tissue.
Name the 3 main types of cartilage tissue.
- Hyaline cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
- Elastic cartilage
Name the main causes of burns.
Intense heat, radiation, electricity, and harsh chemicals.
Name the types of cells found in the stratum spinosum.
Keratinocytes and Langerhans cells.
What is eleidin? What does it do? Where is it found?
Eleidin is a clear protein rich in lipids. It forms a waterproof barrier in the stratum lucidum. It is derived from keratohyalin.
Explain how ultrasonography works. What is it used for? What are the advantages and drawbacks?
High-frequency sound waves are transmitted into the body, and the echo signal is recorded by a computer and translated into a real-time image. Ultrasonography is used to study heart function, blood flow in the neck or extremities, gallbladder disease, and fetal development. Advantages: least invasive of all imaging techniques, so can be used in sensitive situations like pregnancy. Drawbacks: image quality depends on operator, and unable to penetrate bone and gas.
What is a polyribosome?
It is a string of ribosomes that are all translating the same mRNA simultaneously.
Describe third-degree burns.
It extends fully into the epidermis and dermis. It destroys tissues, thus affecting nerve endings.
Describe the structure of hair.
Hair is a keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis. It is primarily made of dead, keratinized cells. Each strand of hair is formed in a hair follicle, which is an extension of the epidermis into the dermis.
What type of cell responds to light touch?
Meissner corpuscles (tactile corpuscles).
What is the typical function of simple cuboidal epithelium?
Secretion and absorption.
What is the epiphyseal plate?
It is a layer of hyaline cartilage, found in the metaphysis of a growing bone. The epiphyseal plate is where growth occurs.
Which germ layer forms the synovial membranes?
Mesoderm
Name the layers of the epidermis, from deep to superficial.
- Stratum basale.
- Stratum spinosum.
- Stratum granulosum.
- Stratum lucidum (only in hands + feet).
- Stratum corneum.
What are mesenchymal cells?
They are stem cells that give rise to the different types of connective tissue cells.
Describe the shape of flat bones.
Thin and curved.
What is the function of the stratum basale? How does it accomplish this?
It attaches the epidermis to the dermis (via intertwining collagen fibers).
Explain the cellular defect that causes cystic fibrosis.
The gene for a particular Cl– pump, which normally uses ATP to pump Cl– down its concentration gradient (exception to the rule of ATP pumping against the gradient), is mutated. Normally, Cl– is pumped out of the respiratory epithelia, resulting in watery mucus (water follows the Cl–). In people with CF, the mucus is way too thick (cilia cannot operate the mucus elevator).
Describe osteocytes.
They are the most abundant bone cell. They are found in lacunae (little spaces) in mature bone. They develop from osteoblasts, after the osteoblast has been trapped by the calcified matrix. They can communicate and receive nutrients through cytoplasmic processes that extend through canaliculi (channels with the bone matrix).
Define squamous.
Flattened and thin.
Define parenchyma.
The parenchyma is the functional tissue of a gland or organ (as distinguished from the connective and supporting tissue).
What is hyaluronan?
It is a compound that is produced by fibroblasts in the synovial membrane. It is released into the joint cavity. It helps trap water and lubricate the joint.
Describe elastic cartilage.
It contains elastic fibers, as well as collagen and proteoglycans.
Describe the structure of intermediate filaments.
They are composed of keratin.
Define trabeculae.
Spikes or sections of the lattice-like matrix in spongy bone. They appear to be random, but each one actually formed along a line of stress, thus strengthening the bone.
Name and describe the main types of skin cancer.
Basal cell carcinoma - affects the mitotically active stem cells in the stratum basale.
Squamous cell carcinoma - affects the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum.
Melanoma - affects the melanocytes (typically develops from a mole). It is the most fatal of all skin cancers, and can metastasize easily. It is difficult to detect before it has spread to other organs.
Describe the shape of short bones.
Cube-like.
Define canaliculi.
Channels within the bone matrix that house one of an osteocyte’s many cytoplasmic extensions that it uses to communicate and receive nutrients.
What is a scar? What type of cell generates scars?
It is a section of collagen-rich skin. The collagen is generated by fibroblasts.
Name the two types of bone tissue.
Compact bone, and spongy (cancellous) bone.
Name the subdivisions of the posterior cavity.
The cranial cavity and the spinal cavity (these two cavities are continuous with one another).
Name the structural protein found in hemidesmosomes.
Integrin.
Describe the function(s) of sesamoid bones. Where are they found?
They protect tendons from compressive forces.
They are found in tendons.
Example = patellae.
