A&P II Chapter 22 Respiratory Flashcards
What is respiration?
Ventilation of Lung (breathing)
exchange of gases between air and blood
use of O2 in cellular metabolism (cellular respiration)
Name the organs of respiration
Nose, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs
a)What parts of respiratory tract constitute conducting division and respiratory division
Constitute Conducting: Passage serve only for airflow, nostrils to bronchioles
Respiratory Division: Alveoli and distal gas-exchange regions
What parts of respiratory tract constitute upper respiratory and Lower respiratory tract.
Upper Respiratory: Organs in head and neck, trachea through larynx
Lower Respiratory: Organs of the Thorax, trachea through lungs
How nasal septa is formed (bones and cartilage)
- superior half: nasal bones medially & maxillae laterally
- inferior half: lateral and alar cartilages
- ala nasi: flared portion shaped by dense CT, forms lateral wall of each nostril
How many conchae and meatus found in the nasal cavity. What is the function of meatus.
• Superior, middle and inferior nasal conchae
– 3 folds of tissue on lateral wall of nasal fossa
• Meatuses
– narrow air passage beneath each conchae
– narrowness and turbulence ensures air contacts mucous membranes – this cleanses, warms, and humidifies the inhaled air
What is epistaxis? Which nasal conchae involves in epistaxis.
– inferior concha is the most common site for spontaneous epistaxis (nosebleed)
What is the name of common pathway for both food and air.
How many parts of pharynx?
Name important structures of nasopharynx and oropharynx.
Pharynx
3 region,
Nasopharynx : posterior to choanae, dorsal to soft palate, passes air only, receives auditory tubes and contains pharyngeal tonsil
Oropharynx: extends proximally from soft palate superiorly and root of tongue inferiorly to distally as far as the hyoid bone; anteriorly has the fauces (opening of oral cavity to pharynx) – contains palatine and lingual tonsils
Which structure guards glottis during swallowing?
What is the name of folds that close glottis during swallowing?
Larynx
Epiglottis
How many cartilages consist of larynx?
What is laryngeal prominence?
Which cartilage involves in laryngeal prominence.
9 Cartilages
Adam’s apple, a feature of the human neck, refers to the lump
Thyroid cartilage - largest,
Which part of respiratory tract is called wind pipe?
Trachea
Trachealis muscle is found in which part of respiratoty tract.
Trachea
Which epithelium lined larynx, trachea and bronchial tree.
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Name the surfaces of a lung.
How many lobes right and left lungs have?
Has apex; concave base, costal surface; mediastinal surface, cardiac impression, hilum, Root
Right has 3 Lobes
Left has 2 Lobes
What is hilum?
Name the structures passes through a lung hilum.
Mediastinal surface has a slit – the “hilum” through which blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves etc enter the lungs; these structures at the hilum makes the “root” of the lung
What is bronchial tree?
Bronchial tree extends from where to where.
- The spongy parenchyma of the lungs have a highly branched air conducting pathway
- extends from the primary bronchus to terminal bronchioles
What is bronchopulmonary segment?
portion of lung supplied by each tertiary bronchi
What is alveolus?
Name three important cells found in the lung alveoli.
small cavity, pit, or hollow, in particular.
tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
Type I pneumocyte (Squamous Alveolar) cells that form the structure of an alveolar wall.
Type II pneumocyte (Great Alveolar) cells that secrete pulmonary surfactant to lower the surface tension of water and allows the membrane to separate, thereby increasing the capability to exchange gases. Surfactant is continuously released by exocytosis. It forms an underlying aqueous protein-containing hypophase and an overlying phospholipid film composed primarily of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine.
Macrophages that destroy foreign material, such as bacteria.
What is pleura?
Name two layers of pleura?
Function of pleura and pleural fluid.
- serous membranes lining the thorax and enveloping the lungs
- visceral and parietal layers
- reduction of friction
- creation of pressure gradient
- lower pressure assists in inflation of lungs
- compartmentalization by pleura and pericardium
- prevents spread of infection
What are the two important factors responsible for ventilation.
inspiration and expiration
Name muscles of ventilation/respiration.
Name one of the important muscle of respiration that involves in both inspiration and expiration.
Diaphragm, Scalene, External intercostal, Pectorals minor, sternocleidomastoid and erector spinae muscles
intercostal,
In respiration (inspiration/expiration) which process is active and which process is passive.
Inspiration is an active process
expiration is a passive process
What is Pneumothorax?
Effect of pneumothorax.
Presence of air in pleural cavity
loss of negative intrapleural pressure causes the lungs to recoil and collapse,
What is atelectasis?
Collapse of lung (or part of lung)
Name the factors that causes resistance to airflow in the lungs (only name)
pulmonary compliance
distensibility of the lungs
What is pulmonary surfactant?
What is its composition?
Function of surfactant.
- Surface tension of water in the alveoli and distal bronchioles, that is necessary for gas exchange, resists inspiration and promotes expiration
- This surface tension would act to collapse alveoli and distal bronchioles
- Pulmonary surfactant released from the great alveolar cells disrupt hydrogen bonds of water and surface tension
- As passages contract during expiration, surface tension naturally and surfactant concentration preventing alveolar collapse
- Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in premature infants is due to a deficiency of surfactant – treated by administering artificial surfactant
What is alveolar ventilation rate (AVR).
Amount of ventilation rate.
air that actually ventilates alveoli X respiratory rate
directly relevant to body’s ability to exchange gases
What is Spirometer and Spirometry?
Why we measure ventilation?
Spirometer: Device a subject breathes into that measures ventilation and determines pulmonary function
Spirometry: measuring of breath
It helps assess and distinguish between restrictive and obstructive lungs disorders.
Name four respiratory volumes.
What is tidal volume and its total amount.
– tidal volume:
– inspiratory reserve volume:
– expiratory reserve volume:
– residual volume:
– tidal volume: air inhaled or exhaled in one quiet breath 500ml
Name four respiratory capacities.
What is vital capacity and its total amount?
_vital capacity:
− inspiratory capacity
− functional residual
− total lung capacity
vital capacity: amount of air that can be exhaled with maximum effort after maximum inspiration; assess strength of thoracic muscles and pulmonary function 4700ml
Variations in the Respiratory Rhythm ->
Apnea: temporary cessation of breathing one or more shipped breaths.
Dyspnea: Labored gasping breathing shortness of breath
Hyperpnea: Increased rate and depth of breathing in response to excerise pain other condition
Hyperventilation: Increased pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic demand, anxiety, expels co2 faster than its produced, lowering the blood CO2 concentration and raising the blood PH
Hypoventilation: reduced pulmonary ventilation leads to increase in blood CO2
Kussmaul respiration: Deep rapid breathing by acidosis seen in diabetes mellitus
Orthopnea: Dyspnea that occurs when a person is lying down or any position other than standing,
Respiratory arrest; Permanent cessation of breathing unless there is medical intervention
Tachypnea: Accelerated respiration
Name factors that affect respiratory volumes and capacities.
- Age: lung compliance, respiratory muscles weaken
- Exercise: maintains strength of respiratory muscles
- Body size: proportional, big body has large lungs
- Restrictive disorders: compliance and vital capacity
- Obstructive disorders: interfere with airflow, expiration requires more effort or less complete
Name two respiratory nuclei of medulla oblongata and two respiratory nuclei of pons and their functions.
Medulla Oblongata–inspiratory center (dorsal respiratory group or DRG – I neurons) more frequently they fire, more deeply you inhale longer duration they fire, breath is prolonged, rate is slower
pons- – pneumotaxic center• sends continual inhibitory impulses to inspiratory center that controls the rate and depth; as impulse frequency rises, breathe faster and shallower– apneustic center • prolongs inspiration, role unclear
Composition of atmospheric air and alveolar air.
- Composition of Air: In a mixture of gases, each contributes its partial pressure, (at sea level 1 atm. of pressure = 760 mmHg) – nitrogen constitutes 78.6% of the atmosphere, PN2 = 78.6% x 760 mmHg = 597 mmHg – PO2 = 159, PH2O = 3.7, PCO2 = 0.3 mmHg (597 + 159 + 3.7 + 0.3 = 760)
- Alveolar air is different from atmospheric air because it is humidified, it exchanges gases with blood, and mixes with residual air contains: PN2 = 569, PO2 = 104, PH2O = 47, PCO2 = 40 mmHg
Name factors that affect gas exchange (name only).
- Concentration gradients of gases air
- Gas solubility
- Membrane thickness
- Membrane surface area
- Ventilation-perfusion coupling
How o2( Oxygen) transport in the blood and how co2 (Carbondioxide) transport in the blood.
Oxygen Transport
• Concentration in arterial blood
– 20 ml/dl, (98.5% bound to hemoglobin, 1.5% dissolved in plasma)
• Binding to hemoglobin
– each heme group of 4 globin chains may bind 4 O2 molecules
– oxyhemoglobin (HbO2 ), deoxyhemoglobin (HHb)
Carbon Dioxide Transport : it is transported
• As carbonic acid - 90%
– CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
• As carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2)- 5% binds to amino groups of Hb (and plasma proteins)
• As dissolved gas - 5%
What is repiratory acidosis and how it is corrected.
• Respiratory acidosis (pH < 7.35) caused by failure of pulmonary ventilation
– hypercapnia (PCO2) > 43 mmHg (Normal __________)
– corrected by hyperventilation, pushes reaction to the left (pH increases) by “blowing off ” CO2. More and more H+ will join HCO3- to make H2CO3 that will break down and release CO2.
CO2 (expired) + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
What is respiratory alkalosis and how it is corrected.
• Respiratory alkalosis (pH < 7.35) – hypocapnia (PCO2) < 37 mmHg – corrected by hypoventilation, pushes reaction to the right (pH decreases) CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+ – H+, lowers pH to normal
Effects of blood chemistry (PH, CO2 and O2) on respiration
• pH imbalances can be due to metabolic causes such as diabetes mellitus that can lead to diabetic ketoacidosis.
Effects of Carbon Dioxide • Indirect effects – through pH as seen previously • Direct effects – CO2 may directly stimulate peripheral chemoreceptors and trigger ventilation more quickly than central chemoreceptors
Effects of Oxygen • Usually little effect • Chronic hypoxemia, PO < 60 mmHg, can significantly stimulate ventilation – emphysema, pneumonia – high altitudes after several days
What is hypoxia and different types.
• Hypoxia: is a deficiency of oxygen in a tissue or the inability to use oxygen.
– hypoxemic hypoxia - usually due to inadequate pulmonary gas exchange
• high altitudes, drowning, aspiration, respiratory arrest, degenerative lung diseases, CO poisoning
– ischemic hypoxia - inadequate circulation
– anemic hypoxia - anemia
– histotoxic hypoxia - metabolic poison (cyanide)
– cyanosis - blueness of skin due to hypoxia
– primary effect of hypoxia is tissue necrosis, organs with high metabolic demands affected first
Name chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases.
• Asthma - allergen triggers histamine release, intense bronchoconstriction
• Other COPD’s usually associated with smoking (don’t deny it)
– chronic bronchitis
• cilia immobilized and in number, goblet cells enlarge and produce excess mucus, sputum formed (mixture of mucus and cellular debris) which is ideal growth media for bacteria, chronic infection and bronchial inflammation develops
– emphysema
• alveolar walls break down, much less respiratory membrane for gas exchange, lungs fibrotic and less elastic, air passages collapse and obstruct outflow of air, air trapped in lungs
Name different types of lung cancer.
Which type is most common and which type is dangerous.
- Squamous-cell carcinoma (most common)
- Adenocarcinoma
- Small-cell (oat cell) carcinoma – least common (most dangerous)
The nasal cavity is divided by the nasal septum into reigh and left
fossae
the intrinsic laryngeal muscles regulate speech by rotating
the arytenoid cartilages
the largest air passages that engage in gas exchanges with the blood are
the respiratory bronchioles
Respiratory arrest would most likely result from a tumor of the
medulla oblongata
which values would normally be the highest
vital capacity
The ________protects the lungs from injury by excessive inspiration
inflation reflex
according to __________the warming of air as it is inhaled helps to inflate the lungs
Charles law
poor blood circulation causes________hypoxia
ischemic
Most of the CO2 that diffuses from the blood into an alveolus comes from
carbonic acid
the duration of an inspiration is set by
The pneumotaxic center
The superior opening into the larynx is guarded by a tissue flap called
epiglottis
Within each lung, the airway forms a branching complete called the
bronchial tree
The great alveolar cells secrete a phospholipid protein mixture called
pulmonary surfactant
Intrapulmonary pressure must be lower than________pressure for inspiration to occur
atmospheric
___disorders reduce the speed of airflow through the airway
obstructive
some inhaled air does not participate in gas exchange because it fills the _________of the respiratory system
anatomical dead space
Inspiration depends on the ease of pulmonary inflation called_______–whereas expiration depends on ______which causes pulmonary recoil
compliance and elasticity
Inspiration is caused by the firing of I neuron in the _______of the medulla oblongata
Ventral Respiratory group
The matching of airflow to blood flow in any region of the lungs is called
ventilation perfusion coupling
A blood PH 7.45 is called________and can be caused by a CO2 deficiency called_______–
Alkalosis and hypocapnia
