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A-LEVEL CHEM 3.1: Physical Chemistry > A-LEVEL Chemistry: 3.1.1: Atomic Structure > Flashcards

A-LEVEL Chemistry: 3.1.1: Atomic Structure Flashcards

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1
Q

What is ‘Mass Number’?

A

The Number of Protons & Neutrons in a specific Atom. It is Specific to the Isotope.

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2
Q

What is ‘Atomic Number’?

A

Atomic Number is the Number of Protons in the Nucleus of the Atom.

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3
Q

What is ‘Relative Atomic Mass’?

A

The Mass of an Atom of an Element, Relative to 1/12th of a C12 Atom.

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4
Q

What is ‘Relative Formula Mass’?

A

The Sum of the Atomic Masses of all Atoms in the Formula of a Substance, Relative to 1/12th the Relative Atomic Mass of a C12 Atom.

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5
Q

What is ‘Relative Molecular Mass’?

A

The Average Mass of a Molecule, Relative to 1/12th the Relative Atomic Mass of a C12 Atom. The Sum of all Atoms within the Molecule.

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6
Q

What is the Difference between Relative Formula Mass & Relative Molecular Mass?

A

Relative Formula Mass is usually Used for Compounds which are not Molecules, eg Ionic Compounds. On the other hand, Relative Molecular Mass is usually Used for Compounds which are Molecules, eg Covalent Compounds.

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7
Q

Why do Many of the Atomic Measurements begin with ‘Relative’? (eg RAM, RFM, RMM…)

A

Because all the Measurements are Relative to 1/12th the Mass of a C12 Atom.

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8
Q

What is a ‘Mole’?

A

A Mole is a Set Number of Molecules. It is a Unit of Measurement Used in Chemistry. 1 Mole = 6x10^23 (Avogadro’s Constant).

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9
Q

One Mole of Anything Contains…

A

6.022x10^23 of those things. (Avogadro’s Constant).

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10
Q

What is ‘Avogadro’s Constant’?

A

6.022x10^23. The Number of Substance in 1 Mole.

1 Mole = 6.022x10^23

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11
Q

What is the Relative Mass of a Proton?

A

1.

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12
Q

What is the Relative Charge of a Proton?

A

+1.

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13
Q

What is the Relative Mass of a Neutron?

A

1.

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14
Q

What is the Relative Charge of a Neutron?

A

0.

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15
Q

What is the Relative Mass of an Electron?

A

1/1840.

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16
Q

What is the Relative Charge of an Electron?

A

-1.

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17
Q

What are ‘Isotopes’?

A

Isotopes are Atoms with the Same Number of Protons, but Different Numbers of Neutrons.

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18
Q

Isotopes have similar ___ Properties. Why?

A

Chemical. Because they have the Same Electronic Structure.

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19
Q

Isotopes may have Slightly Varying ___ Properties. Why?

A

Physical. Because the have Different Masses.

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20
Q

The ___ for Atomic Structure has Evolved over Time. Why is this?

A

Model. Because Knowledge & Scientific Understanding Changes.

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21
Q

What is the ‘Plum Pudding Model’?

A

An Old Model of Atoms that Consisted of a Sphere ‘Cloud’ of Positive Charge, with Small Balls of Negative Charge Distributed Evenly within it.

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22
Q

Explain the Current Understanding of the Structure of an Atom.

A

The Atom Consists of a Small, Dense Central Nucleus, Surrounded by Orbiting Electrons Organised in Electron Shells.

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23
Q

Who Discovered the Current Understanding of the Atom? When?

A

Rutherford, in his Scattering Experiment in 1911.

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24
Q

What does the ‘Nucleus’ Consist of?

A

Protons & Neutrons.

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25
Q

What is the Overall Charge of the Nucleus? Why is this?

A

The Nucleus has an Overall Positive Charge. This is Because it Consists of Protons (+1) & Neutrons (0).

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26
Q

The Nucleus Contains Almost the Entire ___ of the Atom.

A

Mass.

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27
Q

In a Neutral Atom, the Number of ___ is Equal to the Number of ___. Why is this?

A

Protons, Electrons. This is Due to the Relative Charges. (+1 & -1).

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28
Q

What is the ‘Relative Charge’ of the 3 Sub-Atomic Particles in an Atom? (3)

A

-Proton: +1

-Neutron: 0

-Electron: -1

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29
Q

What is the ‘Relative Mass’ of the 3 Sub-Atomic Particles in an Atom? (3)

A

-Proton: 1

-Neutron: 1

-Electron: 1/1840

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30
Q

What is the Relative Mass of an Electron?

A

1/1840

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31
Q

How can you Calculate the Maximum Number of Orbiting Electrons that can be Held by a Single Shell?

A

2n^2
Where n is the Number of the Shell.

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32
Q

What is the Maximum Number of Electrons that Can be Held by Shell 2?

A

Max. Electrons in Shell 2 = 2(2^2) = 8 Electrons

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33
Q

What Must Happen Before the Next Shell can Hold any Electrons?

A

Each Electron Shell Must Fill Before the Next one Can Hold any Electrons.

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34
Q

Each Electron Shell Must ___ Before the Next one Can Hols any Electrons.

A

Fill.

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35
Q

What Symbol is ‘Mass Number’ Represented by?

A

A

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36
Q

Mass Number = …

A

No. of Protons + No. of Neutrons

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37
Q

Atomic Number = …

A

Number of Protons in the Atom

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38
Q

What Symbol is ‘Atomic Number’ Represented by?

A

Z

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39
Q

What Symbol is ‘Relative Atomic Mass’ Represented by?

A

Ar

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40
Q

What is ‘Relative Atomic Mass’?

A

The Mean Mass of an Atom of an Element, Relative to 1/12th the Mean Mass of an Atom of the Carbon-12 (C12) Isotope.

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41
Q

What are ‘Isotopes’?

A

Isotopes are Atoms of the Same Element with the Same Atomic Number, but with a Different Number of Neutrons, Resulting in a Different Mass Number.

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42
Q

Neutral Atoms of Isotopes Will have the Same ___ Properties. Why is this?

A

Chemical. Because their Proton Number & Electron Configuration is still the Same. The Sharing & Transferring of Electron is Unaffected.

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43
Q

Neutral Atoms of Isotopes Will have Different ___ Properties. Why is this?

A

Physical. Because they have a Different Mass Number (Due to a Different Number of Neutrons).

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44
Q

What are ‘Ions’?

A

Ions are Atoms with an Overall Charge (+ or -).

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45
Q

How are ‘Ions’ Formed?

A

Ions are Formed when an Atom Gains or Loses Electrons, Meaning that it is No Longer Neutral, & Will now Have an Overall Charge.

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46
Q

Explain What happens when an Atom Gain / Loses Electrons. (2)

A

-When an Atom Gains an Electron, Electrons > Protons in the Atom, so the Atom Becomes a - Ion, with an Overall Negative Charge.

-When an Atom Loses an Electron, Electrons < Protons in the Atom, so the Atom Becomes a + Ion, with an Overall Positive Charge.

47
Q

What is ‘Mass Spectrometry’?

A

This is an Analytical Technique Used to Identify Different Isotopes & Find the Overall Relative Atomic Mass of an Element.

48
Q

What is ‘Time of Flight (TOF) Mass Spectrometry’?

A

This Form of Mass Spectrometry Records the Time it Takes for Ions of Each Isotope to Reach a Detector. Using this, Spectra can be Produced, Showing each Isotope Present.

49
Q

Explain the Process of ‘Time of Flight (TOF) Mass Spectrometry’: (5)

A

-1) Ionisation: A Sample of an Element is Placed into the Sample Chamber. The Sample is then Vapourised & Injected into the Mass Spectrometer, Where a High Voltage is Passed Over the Chamber. This Causes Electrons to be Removed from the Atoms (they are Ionised), Leaving +1 Charged Ions in the Chamber.

-2) Acceleration: These Positively Charged Ions are then Attracted Towards a Negatively Charged Detection Plate. This Negative Charge Causes the Ions to Accelerate. This Increases the Kinetic Energy of the Ions. All of the Ions with the Same Charge Will also have the Same Kinetic Energy.

-3) Ion Drift: Once the Ions Pass through the Negative Plate, they Stop Accelerating, & they Drift Down the Chamber, Towards the Detector. The Ions Drift Down the Chamber at Different Velocities, with the Lighter Ions Moving Faster than the Heavier Ions.

-4) Detection: When the Positive Ions Hit the Negatively Charged Detection Plate, they Gain an Electron, Producing a Flow of Charge (a Current). The Greater the Abundance of the Isotope, the Greater the Current Produced.

-5) Analysis: These Current Values are then Used in Combination with the Flight Times to Produce a Spectra Print-Out with the Relative Abundance of Each Isotope Displayed.

50
Q

The Interior of the Mass Spectrometer is a ___. Why is this?

A

Vacuum. This is to Prevent the Ions from Colliding with Molecules in the Air.

51
Q

Why is the Interior of the Mass Spectrometer a Vacuum?

A

To Prevent the Ions from Colliding with Molecules in the Air.

52
Q

What is ‘m/z’?

A

Mass to Charge Ratio. Derived from a TOF Mass Spectrometry.

53
Q

Ar = … (Via a Spectra Produced from a TOF Mass Spectrometry)

A

m/z * Abundance / Total Abundance

54
Q

Spectra Produced by the Mass Spectrometry of Chlorine Display a Characteristic Pattern in 3:1 Ratio for Cl+ Ions, & a 3:6:9 Ratio for Cl2 + Ions. Why is this?

A

Because One Isotope is More Common than the Other, & the Chlorin Molecule Can From in Different Combinations.

55
Q

What are Electrons Held in?

A

Electrons are Held in Clouds of Negative Energy Called ‘Orbitals’.

56
Q

Electrons are Held in Clouds of Negative Charge Called…

A

Orbitals.

57
Q

What are the 4 Different Types of Orbitals? (3)

A
  • s-orbital (Spherical).
  • p-orbital (Dumbbell).
  • d-orbital.
  • f-orbital.
58
Q

The Different Types of Orbitals Correspond with Different ___ on the Periodic Table.

A

Blocks.

59
Q

Each Element in a Specific Block on the Periodic Table has ___ ___ ___ in the ___ that Corresponds with that Block.

A

Outer Shell Electrons, Orbital.

60
Q

The 4 Electron Orbitals: (4)

A

-s

-p

-d

-f

61
Q

Where is Each Orbital Block on the Periodic Table? (4)

A
  • s-block: Left.
  • p-block: Right.
  • d-block: Middle.
  • f-block: Bottom.
62
Q

Each Orbital Can Hold a Different Number of Electrons Before the Next One is Filled: (4)

A
  • s-orbital: 2 Electrons.
  • p-orbital: 6 Electrons.
  • d-orbital: 10 Electrons.
  • f-orbital: 14 Electrons.
63
Q

The Energy of the Orbitals ___ from ___ to ___. What does this Mean?

A

Increases, s, f. This Means that the Orbitals are Filled in This Order.

64
Q

Each Orbital is ___ Before the Next One is Used to…

A

Filled, Hold Electrons.

65
Q

Sodium has 11 Electrons. What would the Configuration of this?

A

Na (11 Electrons) = 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^1

66
Q

The Order of Electron Orbital Configurations (up to 36 Electrons):

A

1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^2 3d^10 4p^6

67
Q

Each Principle Energy Level Contains a…

A

Different Number of Electrons.

68
Q

In: 1s^2 what does each Character Represent? (3)

A

-1: Principal Energy Level 1.

-s: s Sub-Level.

-^2: Holding 2 Electrons (the max. amount for any s Sub-Level is 2, btw).

69
Q

Which Element has the Electron Configuration: 1s^2 ?

A

Helium:

-Principal Energy Level 1 (He has 1 Energy Level).

-s Sub-Shell (Principal Energy Level 1 only has 1 Sub-Shell, that being an s Sub-Shell).

-^2 Electrons in the s Sub-Shell (all s Sub-Shells can only hold a max. of 2 Electrons. Since this one has 2 Electrons, it means that it is full, & any more Electrons would begin to Fill up other Levels & Sub-Levels).

70
Q

What is the Maximum Number of Electrons that Can be Held by Each Type of Sub-Level? (4)

A

-s: 2 (all s Sub-Shells can only hold a maximum of 2 Electrons.)

-p: 6

-d: 10

-f: 14

71
Q

What would be the Electron Configuration of: Phosphorous (15 Electrons)?

A

1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^3

(Principle Energy Level 3; Sub-Level p (3p) Can hold a Maximum of 6 Electrons (as can all p Sub-Levels. But because Phosphorous only has 15 Electrons, it only needs to have 3 Electrons in that Sub-Level. Hence, we show this by writing 3p^3. this Sub-Level can take 3 more Electrons before the Next Sub-Levels begin to Fill).

72
Q

Electron Configuration of Sodium (Na) is:

1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^1

How many Energy Levels, Orbitals, and Electrons are there? (3)

A

-3 Energy Levels (1,2,3).

-4 Orbitals (1s, 2s, 2p, 3s)

-11 Electrons (2+2+6+1 = 11)

(Principle Energy Level 3; Sub-Level s (3s) Can hold a Maximum of 2 Electrons (as can all s Sub-Levels. But because Sodium only has 11 Electrons, it only needs to have 1 Electron in that Sub-Level. Hence, we show this by writing 3s^1. this Sub-Level can take 1 more Electron before the Next Sub-Levels begin to Fill).

73
Q

How do Electrons Pair Up within Orbitals? Why?

A

Within an Orbital, Electrons Pair Up with Opposite Spin, so that the Atom remains as Stable as Possible.

74
Q

What is the Difference Between ‘Sub-Levels’ and ‘Orbitals’?

A

-Sub-Levels: A Sub-Level is the Path taken by Electrons, as they Move Around within the Energy Level.

-Orbitals: An Orbital is a Space within an Atom which has the Highest Chance to be where an Electron is within the Atom.

Otherwords: An atomic Orbital is a Space in which the Chance of an Electron occurring is at its highest level.

75
Q

Within Orbitals, Electrons Pair Up with Opposite Spin. Why is this?

A

This is so that the Atom remains as Stable as Possible.

76
Q

Electrons in the Same Orbital Must Have… Why is this?

A

Opposite Spin. This is so that the Atom remains as Stable as Possible.

77
Q

Electrons in the Same Orbital Must Have Opposite Spin. Why is this?

A

This is so that the Atom remains as Stable as Possible.

78
Q

What is ‘Electron Spin’ Represented by?

A

(Half-)Arrows.

79
Q

What is the ‘Electron Spin’ for these Orbitals?

1s 2s 2p

(3)

A

-1s: [^v]

-2s: [^v]

-2p: [^v] [^ ] [^ ]

80
Q

What are the 3 Overall Rules for writing out Electron Configurations? (3)

A

-The Lowest Energy Orbital is always Filled First.

-Electrons with the Same Spin Fill up an Orbital First before Pairing begins.

-No Single Orbital Holds more than 2 Electrons.

81
Q

If Electrons Spins are Unpaired, and therefore ___, what Happens?

A

Unbalanced. It Produces a Natural Repulsion Between the Electrons, Making the Atom very Unstable. If this is the Case, the Electrons may take on a Different Arrangement to Improve Stability.

82
Q

If Electron Spins are Unpaired, and therefore Unbalanced, it Produces a Natural Repulsion Between the Electrons, Making the Atom very Unstable. If this is the case, What may Happen?

A

If this is the case, the Electrons may take on a Different Arrangement to Improve Stability.

83
Q

What is ‘Ionisation Energy’?

A

Ionisation Energy is the Minimum Energy Required to Remove 1 Mole of Electrons from 1 Mole of Atoms in a Gaseous State. It is Measured in KJmol^-1.

84
Q

Show the Ionisation Energy Equation of Sodium (Na):

A

Na(g) ———-> Na+(g) + e-

85
Q

When do ‘Successive Ionisation Energies’ Occur?

A

Successive Ionisation Energies Occur when Further Electrons are Removed.

86
Q

Successive Ionisation Energies Occur when…

A

Further Electrons are Removed.

87
Q

Successive Ionisation Energies Occur when Electrons Closer to the Nucleus are Removed. What does this Usually Require? Why?

A

This Usually Requires More Energy, Because as Electrons are Removed, the Electrostatic Force of Attraction Between the Positive Nucleus and the Negative Outer Electron Increases. More Energy is Therefore Required to Overcome this Attraction, so Ionisation Energy Increases.

88
Q

Successive Ionisation Energies Occur when Electrons Closer to the Nucleus are Removed. This Usually Requires More Energy. Why is this?

A

This Usually Requires More Energy. Because Electrons Closer to the Nucleus have Much Stronger Electrostatic Forces of Attraction Between them & the Nucleus, More Energy is Required to Overcome these Forces of Attraction.

89
Q

First Ionisation Energy Follows Trends within the…

A

Periodic Table.

90
Q

Explain the Ionisation Energy Trend: ‘Along a Period’:

A

As you go Along a Period on the Periodic Table, the First Ionisation Energy of Elements Increases, Due to a Decreasing Atomic Radius, & Greater Electrostatic Forces of Attraction. Hence, the First Ionisation Energy of Elements Increases as you go Along a Period on the Periodic Table.

91
Q

Explain the Ionisation Energy Trend: ‘Down a Group’:

A

As you go Down a Group on the Periodic Table, the First Ionisation Energy of Elements Decreases, Due to an Increasing Atomic Radius, & Shielding, which Reduces the Effect of the Electrostatic Forces of Attraction. Hence, the First Ionisation Energy of Elements Decreases as you go Down a Group on the Periodic Table.

92
Q

When Successive Ionisation Energies are Plotted on a Graph, what does a Sudden large Increase Indicate? Why is this?

A

When Successive Ionisation Energies are Plotted on a Graph, a Sudden Large Increase Indicates a Change in Energy Level. This is Because the Electron is Being Removed from an Orbital Closer to the Nucleus, Meaning that the Electrostatic Forces of Attraction between the Positive Nucleus & the Negative Electron are Much Stronger, Hence Much More Energy is Required to do so.

93
Q

The First Ionisation Energy of Aluminium is Lower than Expected. Why is this? What Happens as a Result of this?

A

This is Due to a Single Pair of Electrons with Opposite Spin. As a Result of this, there is a Natural Repulsion, which Reduces the Amount of Energy Needed to be Put in to Remove the Outer Electron. Hence, the First Ionisation Energy of Aluminium is Much Lower than Expected.

94
Q

What can a ‘Mass Spectrometer’ be Used to do?

A

The Mass Spectrometer Can be Used to Determine all the Isotopes Present in a Sample of an Elements, & so therefore Can be Used to Identify Elements.

95
Q

Why must TFO Mass Spectroscopy Occur Under a Vacuum?

A

It needs to be Under a Vacuum, Otherwise Air Particles would Ionise & Register on the Detector.

96
Q

In Step 1 of TFO Mass Spectroscopy (Ionisation), when is ‘Electron Impact’ Used?

A

Electron Impact is Used for Elements and Substances with Low Formula Mass. Electron Impact Can Cause Larger Organic Molecules to Fragment.

97
Q

Isotopes are Atoms with the Same Number of ___, but a Different Number of ___.

A

Protons, Neutrons.

98
Q

Isotopes have Similar ___ Properties because they have the Same ___ ___. They may have Slightly Varying ___ Properties because they have Different ___.

A

Chemical, Electronic Structure. Physical, Masses.

99
Q

In TFO Mass Spectroscopy, given that all of the Particles have the Same ___ ___, the Velocity of Each Particle Depends on its ___. Hence, ___ Particles have a Higher Velocity, and ___ Particles have a Slower Velocity.

A

Kinetic Energy, Mass. Lighter, Heavier.

100
Q

What are the 2 Isotopes of of Chlorine (Cl)? What is their % Abundance? (2)

A
  • Cl^35 (75%)
  • Cl^37 (25%)
101
Q

What are the 2 Isotopes of Bromine (Br)? What is their % Abundance? (2)

A
  • Br^79 (50%)
  • Br^81 (50%)
102
Q

The Main Factors that Affect Ionisation Energies: (3)

A

-The Attraction of the Nucleus: The More Protons in the Nucleus, the Greater the Attraction Between the Nucleus & Electrons.

-The Distance of the Electrons from the Nucleus: The Bigger the Atom, the Further the Outermost Electrons are From the Nucleus, & the Weaker their Attraction to the Nucleus.

-Shielding of the Attraction of the Nucleus: More Outward Electrons Will Lose some of the Electrostatic Forces of Attraction Between them & the Nucleus, Due to More Inwards Electrons ‘Shielding’ them from it.

103
Q

Why has Helium (He) got the Largest First Ionisation Energy?

A

Helium has the Largest First Ionisation Energy, Because its First Electron is in the First Shell, Closest to the Nucleus, & so has No Shielding Effects from (non-existent) More Inward Electrons. Helium has a Bigger First Ionisation Energy than Hydrogen, Because it has 1 More Proton than Hydrogen.

104
Q

Why do First Ionisation Energies Decrease going Down a Group?

A

As you go Down a Group, the Outer Electrons are Found in Shells Further from the Nucleus, & so are More Shielded (by More Inward Electrons), so the Attraction Between the Nucleus & the Electrons Decrease. Hence, Less Energy is Required as you go Down a Group.

105
Q

Why is there a General Increase in First Ionisation Energy Across a Period?

A

As you go Across a Period, the Electrons are being Added to the Same Shell, which has the Same Distance from the Nucleus & the Same Shielding Effect. The Number of Protons Increases, however, Making the Effective Attraction of the Nucleus Greater.

106
Q

Why does Sodium (Na) have a Much Lower First Ionisation Energy than Neon?

A

Sodium has a Much Lower First Ionisation Energy than Neon because Na Will have its Outer Electrons in a 3s Shell Further from the Nucleus and is More Shielded. So Na’s Outer Electron is Easier to Remove & has a Lower Ionisation Energy.

107
Q

Why is there a Small Drop in First Ionisation Energies from Magnesium (Mg) to Aluminium (Al)?

A

Aluminium Starts Filling a 3p Sub-Shell, whereas Magnesium has its Outer Electrons in the 3s Sub-Shell. The Electrons in the 3p Sub-Shell are Slightly Easier to Remove than the Electrons in the 3s Sub-Shell, Because the 3p Electrons are Higher in Energy, & are also Slightly Shielded by the 3s Electrons.

108
Q

Why is there a Small Drop in First Ionisation Energies from P to S Orbitals?

A

With Sulphur, there are 4 Electrons in the 3p Sub-Shell, & the 4th is Starting to Doubly Fill the First 3p Orbital.
When the Second Electron is Added to a 3p Orbital, there is a Slight Repulsion Between the 2 Negatively Charged Electrons which Makes the Second Electron Easier to Remove.

109
Q

The Patterns in ___ ___ ___ of an Element give us Important Information about the ___ ___ of that Element.

A

Successive Ionisation Energies, Electronic Structure.

110
Q

Why are Successive Ionisation Energies Always Larger?

A

The Second Ionisation Energy of an Element is Always Bigger than the First Ionisation Energy.
When the First Electron is Removed, a Positive Ion is Formed.
The Ions Increases the Attraction on the Remaining Electrons, & so the Energy Required to Remove the Next Electron is Larger.

111
Q

The Shape of the Graphs of First Ionisation Energy for Periods 2 & 3 are…

A

Similar.

112
Q

A Repeating Pattern Across a Period is Called…

A

Periodicity.

113
Q

The Pattern in the First Ionisation Energy Gives us Useful Information About…

A

Electronic Structure.

114
Q

If the Graph of Second Ionisation Energies of Each Successive Element is Plotted, then a Similar Pattern to the First Ionisation Energies is Observed, but…

A

All the Elements Will Have Shifted One to the Left.

A-LEVEL CHEM 3.1: Physical Chemistry (2 decks)

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