9 reasoning and problem solving

Question 1

What is deductive reasoning?

Answer 1

Deductive reasoning involves drawing specific conclusions from general premises.

Question 2

What is a heuristic in the context of problem-solving?

Answer 2

A heuristic is a simple, efficient rule or “rule of thumb” that helps solve problems quickly, though it may not always be perfect.

Question 3

What is the hill-climbing heuristic?

Answer 3

It’s a problem-solving strategy where steps are taken that seem to lead directly to the goal, though it can sometimes lead to suboptimal solutions

Question 4

What is means-ends analysis?

Answer 4

Means-ends analysis involves breaking down a problem into smaller sub-goals to reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state.

Question 5

What did Newell and Simon (1972) contribute to problem-solving research?

Answer 5

They introduced the concept of “problem space” and developed the General Problem Solver, one of the first AI programs for solving well-defined problems.

Question 6

What is the “problem space” according to Newell and Simon?

Answer 6

Problem space includes the initial state, goal state, all possible moves, and intermediate states involved in solving a problem.

Question 7

How do Gestaltists view problem-solving?

Answer 7

Gestaltists focus on the restructuring of problem representation, relying heavily on insight rather than a systematic search process.

Question 8

What is meta-reasoning in problem-solving?

Answer 8

Meta-reasoning involves monitoring and regulating one’s progress during problem-solving, including assessing progress and changing strategies if necessary.

Question 9

What role does the prefrontal cortex play in problem solving?

Answer 9

The prefrontal cortex is crucial for planning, and damage to this area can impair problem-solving abilities, particularly in tasks requiring sequential planning.

Question 10

What did Crescentini et al. (2012) find about brain areas involved in planning?

Answer 10

Different brain areas are involved in planning (prefrontal cortex) and execution (temporal and motor areas).

Question 11

What is the cognitive reflection test (CRT)?

Answer 11

The CRT measures cognitive miserliness by presenting problems that elicit an intuitive but incorrect response, requiring reflection to correct with Type 2 thinking.

Question 12

What is cognitive miserliness?

Answer 12

Cognitive miserliness refers to the tendency to use simple, quick cognitive processes (Type 1) rather than more effortful, reflective processes (Type 2).

Question 13

What is analogical problem-solving?

Answer 13

Analogical problem-solving involves comparing two objects or systems by highlighting similarities to solve novel problems.

Question 14

What are the major processes involved in performance of cognitive tasks?

Answer 14

Level 1: executive attention/goal state

Level 2: Maintenance, Disengagement -> active processing, focal attention

Level 3: Physical environment -> to-be-performed task

Question 15

What did Gick and Holyoak (1980) find about analogical problem-solving?

Answer 15

They found that retrieval failures often hinder solving analogical problems, but using relevant analogies improves problem-solving success.

Question 16

What is template theory in chess expertise?

Answer 16

Template theory suggests that chess experts store information in adaptable structures called templates, allowing them to quickly generate and narrow down possible moves.

Question 17

What did De Groot (1965) find about chess masters?

Answer 17

Chess masters recall board positions more accurately than less skilled players, supporting the idea of chunking in memory.

Question 18

What are the three types of errors in medical image detection according to Gegenfurtner et al. (2017)?

Answer 18

Detection errors, recognition errors, and judgmental errors.

Question 19

What are the four stages of creative thought according to Wallas (1926)?

Answer 19

Preparation: Long-term consideration of a problem without a solution.

Incubation: Time spent not thinking about the problem.

Illumination: Sudden insight into the solution following incubation.

Verification: Proving the solution is correct.

Question 20

What is the availability heuristic?

Answer 20

A heuristic where decisions are based on the ease with which similar instances can be recalled, often leading to biases.

Question 21

What is the anchoring effect in decision-making?

Answer 21

The tendency to rely heavily on the first piece of information (anchor) when making subsequent judgments.

Question 22

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Answer 22

A heuristic where judgments are made based on how similar something is to a prototype, often leading to errors.

Question 23

What is the atmosphere effect in syllogistic reasoning?

Answer 23

A bias where the terms used in premises influence the acceptance of conclusions, such as accepting positive conclusions from positive premises.

Question 24

What is conversion error in logical reasoning?

Answer 24

Incorrectly assuming that “All A are B” implies “All B are A,” often influenced by natural language habits.

Question 25

What is confirmation bias in hypothesis testing?

Answer 25

The tendency to seek out information that confirms one’s hypothesis rather than information that could falsify it.

Question 26

What is the selection task (Wason, 1960)?

Answer 26

A logic puzzle where participants often fail to choose the correct cards to test a rule, demonstrating confirmation bias.

Question 27

What is the pragmatic reasoning schema hypothesis by Cheng and Holyoak (1985)?

Answer 27

The idea that people use schemata, such as permission schemas, to solve conditional reasoning problems more effectively.

Question 28

What is a syllogism in deductive reasoning?

Answer 28

A form of reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two premises, often tested in logical reasoning studies.

Question 29

What did Ericsson’s research find about the role of deliberate practice in expertise?

Answer 29

Deliberate practice is crucial for developing expertise, but the 10,000 hours rule is an average, and the quality of practice matters.

Question 30

How do experts and novices differ in visual diagnosis according to Kundel et al. (2007)?

Answer 30

Experts quickly fixate on relevant areas and use pattern matching, while novices take longer and rely more on explicit reasoning.