9. Problem-solving

Question 1

What do problem-solving and decision-making have in common, compared to reasoning (inductive/deductive)?

Answer 1

They are behavioural (action) meanwhile reasoning is cognitive (mental)

Question 2

Problem-solving

Answer 2

reaching a goal by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
Refers to the thinking we do in order to answer a complex question or to figure out how to resolve an unfavourable situation.

Question 3

Types of problems

Answer 3

• Well-defined problem: completely specifies initial conditions, goals and operators (eg. multiple choice exams)
• Ill-defined problem: some aspects are not completely specified, and sometimes require insight to see the problem in a new way (eg. writing a good paper)

Question 4

Stages in problem-solving:

Answer 4

1. Preparation stage (understand p exists, evaluate the presence of any givens and the initial state)
2. Production stage (produce potential solutions)
3. Evaluation stage (tentative solution paths may be explored further, evaluate possible success)
4. Incubation stage (may occur when we give-up, put it aside, when come back maybe solution seems evident)

Question 5

Perspectives of problem-solving:

Gestalt viewpoint

Answer 5

It is both reproductive and productive

• Reproductive: re-use of previous knowledge
• Productive: restructure and insight, accompanied by subjective aha! moments

Question 6

Perspectives of problem-solving:

Information-processing approach

Answer 6

Involves negotiating alternative paths to a solution

• Knowledge states are produced by the application of mental operators (problem representation)
• Algorithms vs heuristics are used to move along the path
• Limited processing resources provide constraints on the degree to which multiple moves can be considered

Question 7

Strategies of problem-solving:

Trial and error

Answer 7

trying various possible solutions and if they fail, try another.
It is useful to perfect inventions but it fails when there is a clear solution, as it might miss forever

Question 8

Strategies of problem-solving:

Algorithm

Answer 8

step by step strategy for solving a problem, methodically reaching a solution

Question 9

Strategies of problem-solving:

Heuristics

Answer 9

short-cut, step-saving thinking strategy or principle that generates a solution quickly (but in possible error)

Question 10

Strategies of problem-solving:

Insight

Answer 10

sudden realization, a leap forward in thinking that leads to a solution (aha! moment)

Question 11

Obstacles to effective problem-solving:
Confirmation bias

Answer 11

tendency to search for information which confirms our current theory, disregarding contradictory evidence

Question 12

Obstacles to effective problem-solving:
Mental set

Answer 12

tendency to approach problems using a mindset (procedures and methods) that has worked previously

Question 13

Obstacles to effective problem-solving:
Fixation

Answer 13

tendency to get stuck in one way of thinking; an inability to see a problem from a new perspective