9 + 10

Question 1

Discuss Nivea and Balea in the Node-level, Group-level and Network-level of the associational network (Teichert & Schöntag, 2010)

Answer 1

• Node:
  
  • Nivea 15 unique associations compared to 9 for Balea
  • Nivea: positive or neutral / Balea: few positive, loaden with negative emotional aspects
  • Nivea connected with; warm, dynamic, pleasant / Balea: ‘on the run’ not very satisfying.
• Group:
  
  • Nivea: average/normal/everyday is interpreted as somthing standard and continuously. For Balea:connected with money saving and low cost (nothing special).
  • Nivea has succeeded at positioning its main purpose (body care) outside of the product category, turning into an emotional aspect that is connected with highly personal values.
• Network:
  
  • Nivea surpasses Balea on all main network properties though equaly familiar
  • Tie strenght Nivea: 3.26 vs 3.11 for Balea. Signal that Nivea has a clearer and more consistent position in consumers’ minds.
  • Can be assumed that Nivea’s brand equity is much higher than that of Balea.

Question 2

How to measure brand attitude? (9 (3 important))

Answer 2

1. Liker Scale
2. Stapel-Scale
3. Thurstone-Scale
4. Guttman-scale
5. Attitude scale from Achenbaum
6. Semantic differential scales
7. Projective differential scales
8. indirect measurements
9. Unobtrusive measurements

Question 3

What does the Thurstone-scale?

Answer 3

Measurement for brand attitude

Also known as the method of equal appearing intervals; objective is to obtain a unidimensional scale with interval propertjes.

• Step 1: Generate a large number of statements or adjectives reflecting all degrees of favorableness towards the attitude of objects.
• Step 2: A group of judges is given this set of items and asked to classify them according to their degree of favorableness or unfavorableness.
  
  • You have statements (items) that go up and down

Question 4

Discuss the storytelling technique (Koll, et al., 2010)

Answer 4

Storytelling

• Way to retreive less accessible knowledge aspects that provide deep understanding of consumer psychology.
• Consumers may store brand-related info episodically in the form of stories
  
  • Aks people to reproduce their stories in writing
  • Oral storytelling allows investigating both verbal and nonverbal knowledge representations.
    
    • Gives acces to a broad arry of unconscious consumer brand knowledge from episodic and implicit memory.

Question 5

what is Dollar Metric Scales?

Answer 5

Method to measure brand preference

Compare brands one by one.

Responses are given in dollars

What should the relative price of the five brands be?

1. First, the respondent chooses the brands most preferred
2. how much extra would they be willing to pay for it?

When you sum up the totals: Comparative brand value

Question 6

Top of mind awareness

Answer 6

TOMA

Write down the first brand that comes to mind when we say (Cola, fast-food, soup)

Question 7

explain how natural grouping works

Answer 7

This method uncovers the way respondent’s group products together and the reasons they use for forming product groups.

• Respondents are asked to group brands and/or products into categories.
• Ladder the primary reason for group membership, either a positive or negative characteristic
• Additionally, the respondent ia to identify the brand or product that best represents the group.
  
  • Important traits and trait performance for the most representative brand can be identified and laddered as well.

Question 8

What is it?

Answer 8

Perceptual mapping

a method to measure brand representation or brand beliefs scores

Question 9

Decompositional vs compositional multidimensional scaling

Answer 9

• Decompositional:
  
  • Attribute-free approach
    
    1. Subjects describe differences between brands
    2. Ask on what dimensons these differences are based
  • Use when you don’t know on which dimensions brands may be different.
• Compositional:
  
  • Attribute-based approach
    
    • ​Dimensions are based on theory
    • Ask subjects to rate brands on these dimensions
  • Useful to know who your main competitors are

Question 10

6 methods for measuring brand awareness

Answer 10

• Unaided brand awareness
• Aided brand awareness
• Top of mind awareness (TOMA)
  
  • “write down the first brand that comes to mind when we say..”
• Tachistoscopic research
  
  • Researcher shows brands very shortly, then ask what respondent recognizes
• Eye tracking
• Website traffic

Question 11

Methods (3) for retrieving consumer brand knowledge (Koll et al., 2010)

Answer 11

• Free association Technique (most popular)
  
  • Consumers receive a stimulus (e.g. brand name or related picture) and have to spontaneously name a certain numer of words that come to mind.
  • Focus on retrieving easily accessible and recordable verbal associations from the associative/semantic memory.
  • Conscious brand knowledge, while not giving insights into deeper, implicit brand knowledge.
• Storytelling
  
  • Way to retreive less accessible knowledge aspects that provide deep understanding of consumer psychology.
  • Consumers may store brand-related info episodically in the form of stories
    
    • Aks people to reproduce their stories in writing
    • Oral storytelling allows investigating both verbal and nonverbal knowledge representations.
  • Gives acces to a broad arry of unconscious consumer brand knowledge from episodic and implicit memory.
• Collage creation
  
  • Consumers have thoughts, desires, emotions and experiences with regard to brands they cannot articulate in stories because they are either “too vague, too complex or too intence for ordinary speech”.
  • Way to uncover such deep thoughts and unconscious thinking is via projective techniques. (e.g. ask consumer to describe which animal best represents the brand and why it is a powerful metaphor)
    
    • Tag a brand personality
  • Another way to access this is via images. Collages are an expressive projective technique asking consumers to elaborate their ideas about brands. (Flexibe composition)
    
    • Support spontaneity, fantasy, creative and metaphorical thinking to trigger hidden thoughts, emotions and associations.

Question 12

What are the main measurement concepts in the input phase and the output phase?

Answer 12

Input phase

• Techniques
  
  • Top-of-mind imaging
  • Grouping similar brands
  • Contextual environment
  • Preference, usage and preference usage differences
  • Timing of purchase or consumption
  • Usage trends
  • Product or brand substitution
  • Alternative usage occasions

Output phase

• Methods
  
  • Brand knowledge, (awareness & beliefs)
  • Brand feeling (emotions and attitude)
  • Brand behavior (loyalty & engagement)
  • Brand meaning
  • Brand preference
  • Brand representation

Question 13

4 methods for measuring brand representation

Answer 13

• Semantic differential / Perceptual mapping
• Cause and effect models
• Brand Relationship Quality (BRQ)
• Brand Asset Valuator (BAV)

Question 14

Why is the average of satisfaction very often a 7?

Answer 14

• It’s difficult to compare
• Five or lower wouldn’t be given as an answer. Because people who don’t like it, don’t buy it.
• People rarely give 9 and 10. Because there is always room for improvement.
• Whats left: 6, 7, 8 = average 7.

Question 15

How can you measure a brand’s emotional added value? (Teichert & Schöntag, 2010)

quantification of data

Answer 15

This is achieved by summarizing synonyms and words with similar meanings. >> coding process

Is inductive, however a reasonable level of objectvity can be achieved through databases and multiple coders.

• Data are quantified using co-word analysis within the individual interview question blocks.
• An affiliations matrix is constructed containing all possible combinations of brand associations and their respective number of co-occurrences.

Question 16

How can you measure brand preference? (6)

Answer 16

• Ranking brands
  
  • Which of these brands do you like to most/least on …
• Constant-Sum-Method
  
  • Allocate 11 points across brands in terms of your preference. A limited amount of points/credits can be distributed to your own preference to brands (= relative measure)
• Preference based MDS
• Brand Price Trade-off Analysis
  
  • what will happen to our and other market share when my brand becomes more or less expensive?
• Conjoint analysis
• Dollar metric
  
  • Compare brands one by one. Responses are given in dollars what should the relative price of the five brands be?

Question 17

When is it best to use compositional MDS and when to use decompositional MDS?

Answer 17

• Use decompositional approach when you want to know on which dimensions the brand may be different (evocation phase)
  
  • In what terms do M&M, Kitkat and Mars differ from each other?
    
    • Map the differences
    • Ask on which dimensions these differences are based
• Use compositional approach when you already know the dimensions and want to connect the brands you are studying.
  
  • How perfom M&M, Kitkat and Mars respectively on dimensions price and quality?
    
    • Ask subjects to rate brands on the given dimensions

Question 18

Discuss the collage creation technique (Koll, et al., 2010)

Answer 18

Collage creation

• Consumers have thoughts, desires, emotions and experiences with regard to brands they cannot articulate in stories because they are either “too vague, too complex or too intence for ordinary speech”.
• Way to uncover such deep thoughts and unconscious thinking is via projective techniques. (e.g. ask consumer to describe which animal best represents the brand and why it is a powerful metaphor)
  
  • Tag a brand personality
• Another way to access this is via images. Collages are an expressive projective technique asking consumers to elaborate their ideas about brands. (Flexibe composition)
  
  • Support spontaneity, fantasy, creative and metaphorical thinking to trigger hidden thoughts, emotions and associations.

Question 19

Discuss how and why Dupont used the ZMET (Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique)

Answer 19

Lacked an accurate picture of consumer’s true feeling about pantyhose

Asked women to assemble magazine clips- (collage building) –

• Magazine clips stand as metaphor for emotions about pantyhose
• Deeper probing of the emotions behind the choice of photos revealed true feelings behind the product
• The research revealed that pantyhose made women feel sensual and attractive, a difficult thing for a woman to articulate in a focus group or in a survey

Question 20

What does the Likert-scale?

Answer 20

Measurement for brand attitude

Question 21

How can you measure brand emotions? (3)

Answer 21

• Self-Explicated Measures (focus on 2 and 3)
• Psychophysiological Research
  
  • ​Brain waives and hemispheric asummetry
  • Body language
  • Voice analysis
  • Cardial research
  • Galvanic skin reaction (GSR)
  • Face reader
• Self-assessment manikin
  
  • ​Three emotions that control your toughts (PAD)
    
    • ​Pleasure
    • Arousal
    • Dominance

Question 22

Explain the BAV’s (Brand Asset Valuator) Lifecycle PowerGrid

Answer 22

• The PowerGrid positions brand along dimensions brand strenght and brand stature.
• Brand is maximized when two conditions are met
  
  • Both at their peaks, and brand strenght is greater than brand stature
• Brands start building in bottom left: Establish through Energized Differentiation and reason for being.
• Brands continue to develop in a clockwise pattern; first through Niche, then to leadership.
• If brands lose their energized differentiation, they can fall below and become a mass market brand.
  
  • If decline continues they will become a commodity where key reason for purchase is typically price.

Question 23

Is the Observed brand a knowledge or feeling?

Answer 23

Knowledge, since it is connecting things.

Question 24

4 methods for measuring brand beliefs SCORES (instead of items)

Answer 24

• Semantic Differential
  
  • Bipolar scale: very interesting versus very boring (often used)
• Perceptual mapping
  
  • Multi-dimensional scaling (compositional)
  • Factor analysis
  • Discriminant analysis
• Association patterns (ASSPAT)
  
  • Which characteristics do the following brands exhibit?
• Cognitive ResponseAnalysis (CRA)
  • Attempts to understand how people acquire and change attitude in response to presuasive communication.
  • It is how and what consumers think about a persuasive communication (information) attempt

Question 25

Explain what Brand Relationship Quality (BRQ) does in order to measure brand representation

Answer 25

Question 26

Experienced versus Observed brand emotions

Answer 26

• Experienced:
  
  • The confrontation with a brand can trigger affective responses (self-experienced associations)
    
    • Most of the time they are non-specific (a pleasant feeling or a feeling of familiarity at most)
    • Usually they are quite weak and as a result thereof difficult to measure.
    • Note: advertisement statements can trigger emotions.
• Observed:
  • Consumers recognize that an emotion belongs to a certain brand presented by others
    
    • Hence, they do not experience these emotions them selves
    • Caters for differentiation from competition and is therefore relevant to consumers.

Question 27

What is perceptual mapping?

Answer 27

Method to measure brand beliefs scores

• Multi-dimensional scaling (compositional)
• Factor analysis
• Discriminant analysis
• The arrow indicates the direction in which that attribute is increasing.
• Length of the line from the origin to the arrow is an indicator of the variance of that attribute explained by the 2D map. The longer this line, the greater is the importance of that attribute in explaining variance.
• Attribute that are both relatively important (i.e., long vector) and close to the horizontal (vertical) axis help interpret the meaning of axis.
• To represent a laptop on each attribute, draw an imaginary perpendicular line from the location of the laptop onto that attribute. (These are shown by dashed lines on the map).

Question 28

Koll et al., (2010) reports and compares brand knowledge by evaluating:

1. Breadth and concentration of brand knowledge
2. Overlap of specific knowledge elements between methods
3. Actual brand knowledge

What are their findings about the 3 brand knowledge assesment techniques?

Answer 28

1. Breadth and concentration of brand knowledge
   
   • Collage contaned 3 times as many brand knowledge elements as in the free association task
   • Stories contain slightly more elements than free association task.
   • Both Collages as Stories elicited a higher veriety of knowledge elemants than the free association technique.
2. Overlap of content
   
   • Collages and Storytelling reveal both a larger number of knowledge elements and larger variety of knowledge.
   • The strong er overlap between free association and storytelling than between th e other techniques potentially results from the verbal (as opposed to visual) nature of tapping knowledge.
   • ​Collages uncover knowledge elements that may remain undetected through the other two methods.
3. Nature of Brand Knowledge
   
   • ​​Usage imagery-related elements are prominent in all methods
   • Free association reveals more semantic knowledge related to facts (e.g. company’s history, size) and advertising knowledge (e.g. verbal descriptions of the logo).
   • Functional benefits of the brand are more frequent in free association and storytelling than in collages.
     
     • ​Respondents may find it easier to reproduce functional elements verbally than finding images in magazines
   • Stories allow retrievel of episodic and procedural memory, such as personal experiences.
   • Sponsoring is less tapped by storytelling while more at free association and collages.

Question 29

How was Nivea succesful in differentiating itself? (Teichert & Schöntag, 2010)

Answer 29

Nivea has succeeded at positioning its main purpose (body care) outside of the product category, turning into an emotional, brand specific aspect that is connected with highly personal values.

Question 30

Name 3 decomposing techniques and 4 composing techniques

Answer 30

• Decomposing (measuring belief ITEMS)
  
  • Natural grouping
  • Repertory grid
  • MDS (decompositional)
• Composing (measuring belief SCORES)
  
  • Semantic differential
  • Perceptual mapping
    
    • MDS (compositional)
    • Factor Analysis
  • Brand Asset Valuator

Question 31

How Actionable Are the Results? Do They Provide Management with a Clear Guideline of Which Brand-Related Activities to Initiate or to Continue? (Koll, et al., 2010)

what is the value of brand knowledge research?

Answer 31

• If a brand aiming for a certain lifestyle positioning elicits unwanted (i.e., not compatible with brand identity), unfavorable, or mostly functional associations, management may conclude that past actions were not successful and need reevaluation.
  
  • Mostly favorable, desirable associations (e.g., mainly consisting of certain user imagery) may indicate effective brand management. The knowledge that stories and collages retrieve may be more insightful and potentially more specific in uncovering weak spots.

Question 32

How Suitable Is Each Technique to Assess Brand Differentiation?

(brand kowledge techniques (Koll, et al., 2010))

Answer 32

• Direct references to competitors are rare in the free association and collage methods, and more frequent in storytelling.
• The collage task may even counter the objective of uncovering competitive information, as respondents may specifically search for pictures that contain the focal brand.

Question 33

Explain what the Brand Asset Valuator (BAV) does in order to measure brand representation

Answer 33

• Differentiation
  
  • Perception that the brand is unique
• Relevance
  
  • Perception that the brand is relevant to the customers life
• Esteem
  
  • Holding the brand in high esteem
• Familiarity
  
  • Feeling knowledgeable about the brand.

Question 34

Node-level analysis versus Group-level analysis versus Network-level analysis of brand association networks

Answer 34

• Node level:
  
  • Most elementary is the number of mentions
  • Higher probabilities indicate a top-of-mind accessibility (higher salience)
  • May serve as first indication of the strenghts and weaknesses of a brand
  • Mentioning probability = strenght of a node
• Group level:
  
  • Reveals image dimensions
  • Are useful for revealing strenghts and weaknesses of a brand
• Network level:
  
  • Suited for long-term stretegic view.
  • Changing network structures takes time and a strategic approach.
  • It can influence the overall brand image

Question 35

4 methods to research associations

Answer 35

• Free associations
  
  • Group all given associations to e.g. Brand Personality scale
• Word association test
  
  • A list of words, both relevant and irrelevant, used to understand people’s feelings towards different words – Used to examine the effectiveness of brand names, new products and services, and key advertising words.
• Symbolic association
  
  • Researchers use a list of pictures that are very symbolic, meaningful to customers.
    
    • Which of these symbols best represent brand A? Why?
• Photosort
  
  • Using photos of people. Instead of asking which associations there was asked which photo would fit Albert Heijn. This people can stand for normal, cozy, etc

Question 36

Semantic memory system versus episodic memory system

(Koll et al., 2010)

Answer 36

• Semantic memory system
  
  • Mostly verbal, categorical, and conceptual knowledge consisting of abstract, context-free information and facts about a brand
  • Developed via rational thinking
• Episodic memory system
  
  • Knowledge explains bonds between brands and consumer, providing insights into consumer self-identities, motivations and goals in a temporarilly structered and context-sensitive manner.
  • Developed via experiental thinking
    
    • Consumers encode reality in specific, modal images, vision, audiations, etc.
• Consumers typically store embodied knowledge in the original nonverbal form because they lack the necessary linguistic resources to verbalize multisensory information.
• The main source of embodied knowledge is vision, since more than 60%% of the incoming information reaching the brain passes through the visual system.

Question 37

How can you measure brand meaning? (2)

Answer 37

• Laddering (meaning structure)
  
  • Means-end chain (why, why why?)
• Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation technique (ZMET)
  
  • research process dedicated to understand people at deep, emotionally rich levels. Below the easily observable surface level.

Question 38

what is the Cognitive Response Analysis (CRA)?

Answer 38

Method for measuring brand beliefs scores

• A theory that attempts to understand how people acquire and change their attitude in response to persuasive communication
• People do not passively accept persuasive messages; they actively think about them
• This thinking results either in attitude change or resistance to change
• Original messages are often elaborated with (personal) ideas and arguments

It is how and what consumers think about a persuasive communication (information) attempt

Cognitive Response Coding Scheme (Bucks et al., 1988)

1. Relevance
2. Target​
3. Origin
4. Polarity (Not true according to Roest. : Everything has positive things, so when you take average of positive and negative = neutral)

Question 39

what is Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation technique (ZMET)?

Answer 39

method to study brand meaning

to understand people at deep, emotionally rich levels. Below the easily observable surface level.

• Thoughts are in image form
• Metaphoric thinking is the basic mental process
• Metaphor is central to understanding meaning
• Meaning is acquired through our senses (our cognition is embodied)
• Our mental models frame and guide how we select information and frame how we process that information

Question 40

Tachistoscopic research

Answer 40

• The researcher shows brands for a small amount of time
  
  • e.g. it will be gone in less than a second.
• Then the researcher will ask the respondent what he recognizes.

Question 41

2 construction tools to research brand beliefs

Answer 41

• Thematic Apperception Test
  
  • Respondents are asked to write a story about one or a series of picture(s) they are shown for a short period of time.
    
    • Especially useful when dealing with special groups, such as children
• Cartoon Test
  
  • Respondents are asked to examine a picture and fill in empty balloons
  • Similar to TAT but the response is far more limited and therefore easier to analyze

Question 42

The researcher shows brands for a small amount of time, e.g. it will be gone in less than a second. Then the researcher will ask the respondent what he recognizes.

name of this measurement method

Answer 42

Tachistoscopic research

Question 43

Measuring brand beliefs ITEMS

5 methods

Answer 43

• Brand Personality Scale (Aaker)
  
  • To what extend do you agree with the statement that brand A can be associated with..
• Natural grouping
  
  • Resp. are ased to group brand into categories >> ladder the primary reason for group membership. Also identify which brand best represents the group.
• Repertory Grid analysis
  
  • Method to elicit specific constructs. (1. split up triad into two groups, 2. label th groups, 3. rate the object on construct, 4. create grid)
• Multi-Dimensional scaling (decompositional)
  
  • How different is M&M from Kitkat and Mars?
• Top-of-Mind imaging
  
  • Resp. is aslked to give one or more top-of-mind associations for each one of several brands. (polarity (positive/negative) is determined).
  • Then asked why each charachteristic is a + or a - (laddering)

Question 44

What is the Bi-focus interview technique?

Answer 44

Bi-focus: In this technique there are two groups. There is a room full of camera’s and in the next room there is a group that observes the discussion group. They also give comments on the discussion. After one hour the groups switch and the first observation group will have the discussion. The advantage is that it prevents narrow focused discussion on topics. The observation group has some distance from the group and therefore more insights for broadening or narrowing the discussion.

Question 45

Explain what cause and effect models do in order to measure brand representation

Answer 45

Question 46

What is it?

Answer 46

Semantic Differential

o.a. a method to measure brand representation, brand attitude or brand beliefs scores

Question 47

How to measure brand Loyalty? (3)

Answer 47

• Brand loyalty scales
  
  • ‘I consider myself to be loyal to X’, ‘X would be my first choice’
• NPS (% promotors(9, 10) – % detractors(0-6) )
  
  • Roest doesn’t like because:
    
    • Intention to recommend something isn’t the same as actually (real) recommendations.
    • You loose a lot of data. (0-6 are the same (detractor))
• Temkin Experience Ratings
  
  • Are based on the evaluation of 3 elements of experience:
    
    • Succes: How well do experiences meet customers’ needs?
    • Effort: How easy is it for customers to do what they want do do?
    • Emotion: How do customers feel about the experience?
    • (all are dificult to measure)

Question 48

Give an example of a consumer brand knowledge representation according to Koll et al., 2010

on the destination-brand Paris

Answer 48

• Semantic memory, containing abstract information (capital of France,, number of inhabitants, etc.), leans toward the conscious/verbal end of the continu:
  
  • Based in the declarative and explicit memory system, it allows the consumer to consciously retrieve this type of information.
• Episodic memory holds information that is the result of personal experiences with the brand (ee.g., a visit in Paris) and may consist of verbal but especially nonverbal information like images or places.
  
  • Such knowledge often is part of procedural and implicit memory, containing deep-rooted, unconscious brand knowledge.

Question 49

Explain how Top-of-mind imaging works:

Answer 49

• The respondent is asked to give one or more top-of-mind associations for each one of several brands or product types.
• Polarity (positive or negative) for each association is also determined.
• The respondent is then asked why each characteristic is a positive or a negative one and the responses are further probed to uncover the ladder.

Top-of-mind imaging identifies the most conspicuous characteristics of a brand, but not always the characteristics that differentiate it from a close competitor

Question 50

What does the Association patterns (ASSPAT) look like?

Answer 50

Which characteristics do the following brands exhibit?

Question 51

How can you measure a brand’s emotional added value? (Teichert & Schöntag, 2010)

Answer 51

• Node:
  
  • Nivea 15 unique associations compared to 9 for Balea
  • Nivea: positive or neutral / Balea: few positive, loaden with negative emotional aspects
  • Nivea connected with; warm, dynamic, pleasant / Balea: ‘on the run’ not very satisfying.
• Group:
  
  • Nivea: average/normal/everyday is interpreted as somthing standard and continuously. For Balea:connected with money saving and low cost (nothing special).
  • Nivea has succeeded at positioning its main purpose (body care) outside of the product category, turning into an emotional aspect that is connected with highly personal values.
• Network:
  
  • Nivea surpasses Balea on all main network properties though equaly familiar
  • Tie strenght Nivea: 3.26 vs 3.11 for Balea. Signal that Nivea has a clearer and more consistent position in consumers’ minds.
  • Can be assumed that Nivea’s brand equity is much higher than that of Balea.

Question 52

what does the Stapel-Scale?

Answer 52

Measurement for brand attitudes

Is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, with a neutral point (zero). The scale is usually presented vertically.

• The stapel scale is like a semantic differential scale with little modifications. It is often used in the situations when two bi-polar adjectives are difficult to find out. The data obtained are the interval and are analyzed in the same manner as the semantic differential data.
• One of the advantages of the Stapel scale is that it does not require the pre-testing of adjectives to ensure their true bipolarity.
• Also, it can be easily administered over the telephone
• Some researcher finds the Stapel scale to be quite complex and confusing.

Question 53

Managerial Implications of the study by Koll et al., (2010)

Answer 53

A multi-method approach can provide more thorough understanding of consumer brand knowledge than a single-method approach.

However, typical constraints in research (e.g, time, money) and divergent objectives of brand understanding (e.g., monitoring, competitive tracking) impact the feasibility of a multi-method approach.

Question 54

explain how the Repertory Grid analysis works

Answer 54

Is a method to elicit specific constructs. General procedure:

1. Split up triad into 2 groups
2. Label the groups
3. Rate the object on construct
4. Create grid

• Personal construct theory:
  
  • Everyone interprets (constructs) events and their universe differently
• Constructs are bipolar:
  
  • Ex. To describe friends, easy going versus tense, reliable versus unreliable.