8.3 Coral reefs

Question 1

What are coral and what are their characteristics?

Answer 1

• Tiny, marine invertebrate animals or polyps belonging to the jellyfish family (soft)- coral is made when the polyps secrete calcium carbonate skeletons called calicles
• about 3 to 6 cm in size
• Structure: Sac-like body + mouth + stinging tentacles
• feed on tiny fish and plankton using their tentacles
• > 1,000 species of coral
• Coral polyps are translucent (clear)
• However, organisms called zooxanthellae (small algae) live inside the tentacles of the polyps. These produce food by photosynthesis (they have a symbiotic relationship) using the CO2 and H20 the polyps produce in respiration which the algae then share with the coral providing them with sugars and O2 which the polyps use to grow and respire(gives coral reefs ‘beautiful’ colours). In return, the algae receive shelter and food from polyp as the Polyp provides Co2 and H20 from respiration for photosynthesis.
• Coral polyps attach themselves to a hard surface, usually rock of seabed – but can be a shipwreck!
• As they grow, they produce calcium carbonate at their base which hardens to form a protective exo-skeleton, joining them all together and fixing them to that one place on the ocean floor

Question 2

Coral structure diagram

Answer 2

Question 3

What is a coral reef?

Answer 3

• Where polyp calicles connect – this creates a colony – this grow and act as a single organism
• A reef is a ridge of material at or near the surface of the ocean. Reefs can occur naturally. Natural reefs are made of rocks or the skeletons of small animals called corals. Reefs can also be artificial—created by human beings.
• Over time this limestone reef (a ridge of rocky, stony material at or near surface of ocean made up of millions of coral polyp skeletons) builds up, which is hard and rock-like on the inside and alive on the outside.
• As one generation dies, the next one grows on top of it, so reef grows upwards and outwards. Tropical reefs can grow at rates of under 2.5–60 cm/year and can form huge structures extending for many miles along the coastline over incredibly long periods of time

Question 4

Coral reef distribution + egs

Answer 4

• Parallel to coastline in linear pattern
• Near coastline – margins of continents & islands
• Coral reefs develop in shallow, warm water, usually near land, and mostly in the tropics; coral prefer temperatures between 21 - 30 °C.
• Not near river estuaries

Examples
- Great Barrier Reef – NE Australia
- Nigaloo Reef NW Australia
- Pacific islands – Fiji, Tahiti, Tonga
- Indian Ocean – Maldives, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Mauritius
- Caribbean - Atlantic

There are coral reefs off the eastern coast of Africa, off the southern coast of India, in the Red Sea, and off the coasts of northeast and northwest Australia and on to Polynesia. There are also coral reefs off the coast of Florida, USA, to the Caribbean, and down to Brazil.

Question 5

Conditions required for coral growth

Answer 5

Corals are very sensitive to their environment and thrive only under very specific conditions – these conditions explain their distribution:

1. Temperature: 23-25 C. Steady temperatures of between 20°C and 30°C all the year round – i.e. warm tropical waters (preferably 23-25°C) – therefore found within 30o latitude of equator. 92% of total found in Indo-Pacific region. Must be above 16o C and max 33oC.

Not in areas with cold sea currents i.e. west sides of continents e.g. west coast of Peru (Humboldt Current) and west coast of S Africa (Benguela Current)

May be found further north if warm water brought by ocean current e.g. Bermuda – Gulf Stream!

2. Salinity: Required. Need salinity of greater than 32psu (i.e. not fresh water). Also can tolerate high salinity levels (>42psu – e.g. Red Sea / Persian Gulf)

PSU = parts per thousand

If you are super keen: (Practical Salinity Unit), which is a unit based on the properties of sea water conductivity. [1 PSU = about 1g / kg]

3. Depth: Less than 25m but not exposed to air. Need light for photosynthesis. Shallow seas, between 10m and 50/60m in depth (light needed for algae – photosynthesis – 98% of food provided by photosynthesis of the algae; plankton (also coral food) needs light); most less than 25m depth and ideally 10m deep and a solid surface on which reef can grow– i.e. found in shallow offshore waters on margins of continents & islands- continental shelf.
   Corals die if exposed to air for too long so mostly found below low tide mark. Found in areas with not too great a tidal range or large changes in sea level
4. Sediments: Clean, clear water with no sediments – not near river estuaries as water has too much sediment and is not saline enough and sediment can clog up the feeding structures and cleaning systems of coral. Coral reefs will not form where turbidity (sediment) is high
5. Waves: Strong wave action to produce well-oxygenated water. Waves remove any trapped sediment and supply oxygen and microscopic plankton as food to the coral.

Often found in breaking wave zone. Provides oxygen and nutrients.

However, extremely strong storm conditions may be too destructive (e.g. tsunami)

The outer edge, seaward edge of the coral grows highest because this is where waves break and where oxygen and food supplies are most abundant

Question 6

Coral bleaching

Answer 6

When algae are ejected so coral loses its colour, due to warming temperatures

Question 7

Fringing reefs

Answer 7

• Reefs that form along a coastline. LOW & NARROW BANDS OF CORAL. ATTACHED TO SHORE/LAND + BUILD OUTWARDS. They grow when coral attaches itself to submerged land on the continental shelf in shallow water, growing upwards to sea level or just below. Often form around tropical islands.
• SHALLOW LAGOON ONLY (if any – there may not be one!) which is only 500m wide - only between reef + land (as surface of coral slightly concave).
• Low and narrow band of coral next to coast at about low tide level. Highest on seaward part (breaking waves here oxygenate water and make food available for polyps which build up the coral
• NOT CONTINUOUS.
• e.g. Fiji / Mauritius

Question 8

Fringing reefs diagram

Answer 8

Question 9

Barrier reefs

Answer 9

• These grow parallel to shorelines, but farther out than fringing reefs, usually separated from the land by a WIDE & DEEP lagoon.
• They are called barrier reefs because they form a barrier between the lagoon and the seas, impeding navigation.
• Not usually continuous as easily damaged and broken up by storms.
• Over 0.5km from shore. Polyps don’t live in deep lagoon but there is old coral on sea floor.
• EG Great Barrier Reef. BROADER REEF, OLDER REEF< MORE CONTINUOUS.

Question 10

Barrier reef diagrams

Answer 10

Question 11

Coral atolls

Answer 11

• These are rings of coral (ring shaped islands rising out of very deep oceans far from land) that grow on top of old, sunken volcanoes in the ocean.
• CENTRAL LAGOON
• They begin as fringe reefs surrounding a volcanic island; then, as the volcano sinks due to tectonic movements, the reef continues to grow, and eventually only the reef remains.
• Usually a broken circle around an island. Narrow circular reefs surround deep circular lagoon.
• E.g. South Pacific Ocean. Maldives

Question 12

Coral atolls diagram

Answer 12

Question 13

Different types of coral reef comparisons

Answer 13

Differences:
(1) Land in centre for barrier + fringing; none for atoll
(2) May be no lagoon for fringing; a lagoon for both barrier and atoll
(3) Barrier wider and older than others

Similarities:
- Must have land to attach to
- Highest point of reef at sea level or just above – on seaward side
- All have steep outer slope where meet ocean side

Question 14

How do coral reefs form?

Answer 14

• Fringing reefs easy to explain: grew in shallow coastal water found where it is today
• Barrier reefs are arguably fringing reefs that continued to grow out & up from the coastline (for better access to light; oxygen; food). This increased height created a wider lagoon as the outer edge (seaward) increased in height to a greater extent than the rest of the reef since this is where waves break and there is most oxygen and food for coral growth.
• Atolls – more difficult to explain because they arise from deep water and are a long way from coastline; no visible connection to island or land mass and with no visible base which is shallow enough for the original corals on which new corals have built.

Question 15

Coral reef sea level rise relationship

Answer 15

Charles Darwin came up with a theory in 1842 (now supported by others eg Dana) to suggest that there is evolution of coral reefs and that their formation is linked and related to either changing land levels (tectonic processes) and/or changing sea levels – this can therefore be used in an essay on landforms associated with sea level change.

Question 16

Formation of fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls diagram

Answer 16

Question 17

Formation of fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls diagram theory

Answer 17

• 3 types of reef are linked
• Fringing reef grows upwards + outwards to form a barrier reef (are arguably fringing reefs that continued to grow out & up from the coastline (for better access to light; oxygen; food). This increased height created a wider lagoon as the outer edge (seaward) increased in height to a greater extent than the rest of the reef since this is where waves break and there is most oxygen and food for coral growth). This evolution would be enhanced especially if the land was sinking (due to tectonic processes) which would increase the size of the lagoon
• A barrier reef around a sinking island could become an Atoll as the coral grows upwards to maintain access to light, oxygen and food as island beneath it sinks.
• Reef continues to grow outwards as island sinks as coral growth is more vigorous on outside of reef (oxygen, waves, food) this creates an ever wider lagoon where island used to be. This creates an atoll.
• SINKING OF LAND IS KEY (or rising of sea) – so use this as an eg of landforms created as a result of sea level change
• VERTICAL GROWTH OF CORAL IS KEY
• LONG time period – allowing conditions for coral growth to be maintained

Question 18

Coral reef value

Answer 18

1. Rainforests of the sea. Amongst the oldest ecosystems (Great Barrier Reef is . Occupy 1% of ocean floor, but house 25% of ocean species. Net primary productivity (NPP) is 2500 g/m2/year (vs. 2200 g/m2/year for rainforests). 4000 fish species. 800 coral species.
2. The coral provides shelter for many animals in this complex habitat, including fish (like eels, parrotfish, snapper, and scorpion fish), jellyfish, anemones, sea stars, crustaceans (like crabs, shrimp, and lobsters), turtles, sea snakes, snails, and molluscs (like octopuses, nautilus, and clams). Birds also feast on coral reef animals.
3. Tourist revenue: around US$30 billion annually. Many tourists visit coral reefs to marvel at colours and wildlife of the reef. Snorkelling and scuba diving is especially popular in the Red Sea. Tourism is a rapidly growing global industry and tourists can provide much needed income in LICs. Countries such as Barbados, Seychelles and Maldives rely on tourism. Tourists attracted to Florida’s reefs bring in US$1.6bn annually.
4. Medical products – some chemicals of organisms living in reef can be used to cure diseases, e.g. skin cancer and viral diseases, bone grafts.
5. Seafood – coral reefs can yield up to 10-15 tonnes of fish and other seafood per km2 per year. It provides food for up to a billion people in Asia alone. In LICs, coral reefs contribute up to 25% of total fish catch.
6. Other commercial products – e.g. coral and shells are made into jewellery while live coral and fish are harvested and sold for use in aquariums. Sand and limestone can be mined for use in building industry
7. Coastal protection (from erosion and flooding) – protect coastline from storm waves and even break power of tsunami waves. Especially important in areas of world where tropical storms are likely. Useful in front of harbours. Protect highly productive mangrove fisheries and wetlands.

• Coral reefs support livelihoods of 100 million of the world’s population.
• They contribute at least $100 billion to the global economy. Some put the indirect contribution much higher – $375bn
• Efficient recycling processes & high levels of species diversity
• Destruction and degradation have massive economic, social & environmental consequences

Question 19

Coral reef threats

Answer 19

• There are good economic reasons why these fragile ecosystems should be used sustainably. However, it is clear that coral reefs are under threat.
• Corals are very sensitive to their environment and thrive only under very specific conditions (earlier notes)
• Coral reefs are damaged or destroyed when these conditions are changed. Even a slight variation in temperature (1-2°C) or increased pollution, sedimentation or algal content can seriously damage them.
• Corals often react to stress (e.g. environmental changes) by expelling the zooxanthellae living in their tissues which causes the colour fades (‘coral bleaching’)
• Primary cause = rising sea water temperatures (alongside other environmental stresses: salinity, UV radiation; storms etc.) – as little as 1-2o can make difference
• Coral begins to starve (as no food from algae) and turn white
• Risk higher in shallower water

Between 1876 and 1979 only three bleaching events were recorded, whereas there were 60 between 1980 and 1993.

1998 bleaching event was significant, damaging 16% of world reefs. Between 2014 and 2016, the longest global bleaching events ever were recorded. In 2016, bleaching hit 90% of coral on the Great Barrier Reef and killed between 29-50%.

Question 20

Places where coral reefs are most at risk

Answer 20

Of the 27 countries and territories most vulnerable to coral reef degradation and loss 70% are small island states. EG Haiti, Philippines, Vanuatu, Kiribati- some of the most vulnerable yet coastal residents are highly dependent on the reefs but have limited capacity to adapt to reef loss

Global threats are challenging to manage as they involve cooperation and are difficult to monitor. However, even local threats experience where priorities for development and govt spending are different. This is the case even in Australia with a conflict of interests

Question 21

Enhanced global warming coral reefs effect

Answer 21

Main threat -global, and long term - even small increases can have significant impact as specific conditions needed for their growth, may happen too quickly for adaptations to occur, temperature increases may be temporary EG El Nino years but impacts may be permanent, wider and indirect implications of temperature changes like sea level rise and increased CO2 along with more frequent storms. More challenging to address as needs global cooperation and close to tipping point and where causes arise, may not be where the impacts are felt.
Coral reefs worldwide face the impacts of climate change since human-caused global warming has led to the heating of the earth’s atmosphere and the elevated surface temperature of ocean waters. If the water temperature becomes lower than 18°C or increases above 30°C, most of the corals will be bleached. With global warming continuing to heat the planet unabatedly, coral bleaching is expected to become more severe.

1. Global warming (causes coral bleaching – corals under stress expel their algae) – If sea increases by only a 1 or 2 C coral bleaching may occur. The temp increase may only be temporary but the effects may be permanent. 16% of world’s reefs bleached in 1998 – some did recover but in many places the damage was permanent. Always happened a bit in summer but MORE now with increasing temperatures.
2. Ocean surface water temperature has increased by an average of 0.5°C since 1860. The IPCC predicts an increase in average air temperature of 1.5°C by 2030 to 2050. The surface waters of the oceans will therefore continue to warm.
3. If ocean surface temperatures continue to rise, the frequency and severity of coral bleaching will also increase, likely affecting the ability of coral reefs to adapt and provide most of the services we demand of them.
4. Global warming will also lead to eustatic (global) rising Sea levels – due to thermal expansion and melting of ice sheets. If sea levels rise faster than coral can grow, reefs drowned by deep water. NB Sea level change can also be isostatic (local) as well as eustatic. Isostatic eg western coastline of Sumatra moved upwards following the earthquake and resulting Tsunami of December 2004 – thrust fault that left large sections of coral exposed to air for longer periods of time than normal and led to coral death.
5. Also leading to changes to oceanic circulation like ENSO and phenomenon like El Nino which affects surface temperatures of water – temperatures in an El Nino year significantly higher
6. Ocean acidification (due to extra CO2 dissolving in ocean – oceans already store 25-30% of CO2) => stresses polyps as makes it more difficult to build and maintain limestone shells (CaCo3). Since the Industrial Revolution, ocean acidity has increased by about 30% (pH has dropped from 8.2 to 8.1 but the pH scale is logarithmic so this accounts for a 30% increase in aciidity), a rate that is more than 10 times what has previously occurred for millions of years. Further, ocean acidity levels are expected to increase by an additional 40% above present levels by the end of this century. The weaker skeleton makes coral reefs more vulnerable to diseases and subsequent destruction of the reef framework. Studies have also revealed that an increase in acidification leads to a decline in the biodiversity of coral reefs, resulting in the removal of important species that are required for the formation of healthy reefs.
7. Climate change => increased frequency and intensity of storms => destruction of corals + erosion of coastlines (sediment) and also changes El Nino patterns – significant as the worst bleaching events have taken place in El Nino years eg 1989 and 2016

Question 22

Pollution coral reef effects

Answer 22

Local threat
Linked to economic development, more intensive farming and increase demand for food from growing population, urbanisation
Most coral reefs occur in shallow water near shore. As a result, they are particularly vulnerable to the effects of human activities, both through direct exploitation of reef resources, and through indirect impacts from adjacent human activities on land and in the coastal zone. Many of the human activities that degrade coral reefs are inextricably woven into the social, cultural, and economic fabric of regional coastal communities.
1. Land based pollution – economic growth in many LICs means that industrial and agricultural pollutants are more likely to get into rivers
2. Agricultural fertilisers containing nitrates and phosphorous wash into rivers => leads to more phytoplankton which thrive on them=> these feed increased numbers of the Crown of Thorns starfish => which swarm into the reefs and eat the coral
3. Oil pollution from shipping => kill coral e.g. Persian Gulf has high levels of pollution from oil tankers. Plastic waste can also
4. Plastic waste => smother and kill coral
5. Raw sewage => from growing coastal settlements and from tourist hotels (even if treated => phosphates => phytoplankton increase => more Crown of Thorn starfish => eat coral). Nutrients + polluted.

Question 23

Physical damage coral reef effects

Answer 23

Local threat

Most coral reefs occur in shallow water near shore. As a result, they are particularly vulnerable to the effects of human activities, both through direct exploitation of reef resources, and through indirect impacts from adjacent human activities on land and in the coastal zone. Many of the human activities that degrade coral reefs are inextricably woven into the social, cultural, and economic fabric of regional coastal communities.

A rise in the human population results in more development of coastal areas. This leads to the alteration of the landscape and an increase in land-based pollution sources threatening the health of coral reefs.

Linked to economic development , intensive agriculture and aquaculture, urbanisation, more hazards, tourism which is needed especially in low income countries
1. Fishing. Overfishing => above max sustainable yield => reduces biodiversity. Use of fishing nets physically damage reefs. Blast fishing (explosives) is damaging
2. Deforestation + urban/industrial development => increased sediment
3. Tourism damage by snorkelling and diving. Stir up sediment from seabed, walking can kill it. Coral taken away by tourists for souvenirs.
4. Mining of sand & limestone for building industry (quarrying) e.g. to build hotels => cause damage. Used for cement.
5. Ships propellers => churn up sea bed => increases turbidity ie sediment
6. Sediment draining from sea from degraded and eroded river basins => damage reef as polyps need clean, clear, sunlit water so cannot live with sediment filled sea
7. Natural hazards e.g. tsunami (Indian Ocean) – can be very destructive eg Boxing Day Tsunami in December 2004
8. Unsustainable harvesting or commercial products
9. Inland construction and coastal construction => erosion => washed into coastal areas
10. Diseases of corals and other reef organisms
11. plagues of predators like the crown of- thorns starfish (COTS) and other damaging organisms such as the sea urchin
12. Invasive species which have been introduced onto new coral reefs.
13. Developments directly on reefs

Question 24

Factors that affect threats + management strategies (generic)

Answer 24

• Level of development (finance) and governance
• Competing priorities – development v management
• Scale of problem
• Type of threat eg physical easier to zone through MPAs and transplant new coral to regenerate reef v international agreements needed for global warming and problem is complex and multi-faceted

Question 25

Great Barrier Reef, Australia

Answer 25

2300KM long: Climate change is the biggest threat- less threatened by local threats as already developed and regulation in place 1. Already marine heatwaves have triggered three mass coral bleaching events on the Great Barrier Reef in just five years, reducing shallow water coral reefs by as much as 50%. Coral reefs can recover from bleaching over time, but only if temperatures drop and conditions return to normal – climate change means temps are rising 2. Since the late 18th century, the ocean has absorbed about 30% of the CO2 humans have generated, decreasing its pH level – more acidic conditions dissolving calcium carbonate exoskeletons . 3. Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of severe weather events. Coastal regions like the Great Barrier Reef are particularly exposed to damaging cyclones, flooding and storms 4. Between 2004 and 2018, 10 cyclones of category three or more crossed the Great Barrier Reef, causing significant damage to coral reefs. 5. Habitat changes: As water temperatures rise, many marine species are being forced to move south to cooler habitats. This shift creates increased competition for food and shelter in cooler waters, threatening the entire ecosystem. 6. For Reef communities, the loss of marine life can have a devastating impact on local ecosystems, food sources and other industries such as tourism.

Question 26

Great Barrier Reef management strategies

Answer 26

Legislation – GBR conservation Act, water quality report cards report each year – local threats well-managed Globally reduce emissions – into the longer term Urgent global action is needed to drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions if any chance to save coral reefs. So far – insufficient global cooperation Key ecosystems like seagrass meadows, mangroves and wetlands, which help absorb CO2 from the atmosphere also need to be established and maintained. These ecosystems play a key role in combating climate change by storing carbon. The Reef is one of the world’s most powerful blue carbon sites. In the shorter term – improve health of coral reefs, improve their resilience and help coral reefs adapt to climate change Emission reduction alone is no longer enough to guarantee the survival of coral reefs – because positive feedback loops already in motion. While the world works towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions, we must also help coral reefs adapt to the warmer temperatures already caused by climate change. We are doing this by developing and scaling up interventions that buy time for coral reefs. We’re concentrating on protecting corals from severe bleaching, helping them adapt to warmer temperatures and actively rebuilding resilient reefs where necessary. Reef Islands Initiative – to rehabilitate reef habitats Under the Great Barrier Reef Foundation, the Reef Islands Initiative was launched in 2018 as the largest reef habitat rehabilitation project of its kind in the Southern Hemisphere – bringing together Traditional Owners, scientists, local tourism leaders, governments and the community to protect and restore critical habitats. Supported by $14 million in funding from Lendlease, the Australian Government’s Reef Trust, the Queensland Government and the Fitzgerald Family Foundation, there are currently three locations underway for the Reef Islands Initiative: Lady Elliot Island, The Whitsundays, Avoid island

Question 27

Lady Elliot Island

Answer 27

- Threat : Previously degraded landscape of bare rock after guano mining destroyed the native vegetation. Nitrogen phosphate and K – effective fertiliser (local threat) - Revegetated 7.5 hectares of the island, clearing weeds and planting more than 4,000 native coral cay trees, plants and grasses - Removed 475 highly invasive umbrella trees and 95% of dragon fruit, a tree climbing weed - Built a 2,000m2 nursery with stocking capacity in excess of 6000 plants and grasses – the only nursery on the Great Barrier Reef for native coral cay species - Reached 100% renewable energy for the island, through installing 729 solar panels and 256 batteries (in partnership with Lady Elliot Island Eco Resort and Queensland Government Rejuvenation Fund) - Success: seen a 125% increase in turtle habitat at the island’s main nesting beach since launching the Initiative

Question 28

Whitsundays

Answer 28

$2.4million reef saving funding – trying to encourage healthy reefs that are resilient against climate change rebuilding coral reefs and crucial habitats like mangroves – carbon sink and protect against storms upskilling tourism operators and Traditional Owners to carry out important restoration work, and piloting innovative technology and actions that will enable the tourism industry to lead the pathway to a carbon neutral Whitsundays. Coral Reef IVF : Whitsundays tourism operators joined researchers on the Reef for the annual coral spawning event, when corals released trillions of eggs and sperm into the water in a mass breeding phenomenon. They learned how to collect the spawn and grow millions of baby corals in special floating nurseries, then helped deploy millions of these babies onto local damaged reefs to restore and repopulate them. Millions of Coral IVF babies have been released in the waters around Lizard Island to help damaged reefs in the area recover. Lizard Island, in the Great Barrier Reef’s far north, has suffered multiple disturbances since 2014 including crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks, severe cyclones and three mass coral bleaching events. Researchers hope some of the larvae – or tiny juvenile corals – will settle and grow on the Reef, replenishing the coral that has been lost. Important for scale of conservation: Coral restoration efforts have so far only been conducted by researchers on a small scale. Giving hundreds of tourism operators the skills to carry out this innovative technique, dubbed Coral IVF, is key to restoring large areas of damaged coral reefs – previously only possible on small scale. Coral Nurture Programme: the Coral Nurture Program - the first coral fragments planted on the Great Barrier Reef have reproduced, just three years after being planted. In 2018, tiny 5cm coral fragments from the seafloor that had broken off due to storm activity were salvaged and replanted them at Opal Reef, near Port Douglas. Success: In a first for the Reef, these corals have rapidly grown to maturity (up to 41cm) and recently spawned, giving fresh hope that they’ll produce thousands of baby corals over the course of their lives and help repopulate damaged reefs. So far 60,000 corals have been attached to the Reef using the innovative Coralclip device, a simple metal clip, which is the key to rapid re-planting methods. The device joins the corals to the Reef without the need for chemical bonding agents. It’s faster and cheaper than traditional methods and has contributed to an impressive coral survival rate of 85%. The Coral Nurture Program is a unique partnership between tourism providers and researchers, which aims to rehabilitate damaged reefs and boost the resilience of healthy areas by pioneering rapid re-planting methods and cost-effective coral nurseries

Question 29

Coral Reef Conservation in Fiji

Answer 29

Great Sea Reef, 200km, 3rd longest continuous reef All the islands in Fiji are surrounded by coral reefs – 2/3 are thought to be at risk. Value: biodiversity – 300 species of coral home to 2000 species of fish, endangered turtle species live there. Important barrier to storm waves. Very important to their economy – subsistence and commercial fishing $6-8million, tourism attracted by the reefs , cultural importance. Threats: Climate change and human-caused problems like over-fishing and pollution are putting Fiji's reefs at risk. In 2000, the country suffered a severe bleaching event and since then has experienced at least three other events, the last major one being in 2016 which saw 30 - 60% of the coral killed in shallow reefs along the Coral Coast. This extensive bleaching event had a big impact on coastal wildlife and killed thousands of fish. Management : 20 years – great efforts to protect the reefs *Fijian government included 30 % of its ocean in marine protected areas (MPAs) by 2020. The establishment of no-take marine protected areas (MPAs) on coral reefs is a common management strategy for conserving the diversity, abundance, and biomass of reef organisms. Generally, well-managed and enforced MPAs can increase or maintain the diversity and function of the enclosed coral reef, with some of the benefits extending to adjacent non-protected reefs · In response to the devastating bleaching event in 2000, Fiji established no-take Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) which limited fishing and other activities in areas. This work also engaged the young people from coastal villages in marine ecotourism and conservation. · Success: 10 years after the MPAs were introduced, coral cover had increased by 500% and there were 50% more coral species than in the neighbouring fished areas which hadn't become a protected area. However – is it sustainable - subsistence and commercial fishing $6-8million – sustainable livelihoods??? · Scientists and conservationists have also been identifying types of corals that didn't bleach as badly and were able to cope better with heat. He now grows more than 7000 heat-tolerant corals a year in five nurseries along the coast. – adaptation – effective but doesn’t solve the problem in the long term · This work has helped to restore coral cover and increased a healthy fish population. Reports from January 2020 showed that coral communities in protected areas affected by the 2016 (El Nino) bleaching event have nearly recovered to pre-bleaching levels. However: · Whilst the protected areas have been a success, some communities in Fiji still haven't recovered from previous bleaching. Parts of the reef that are outside of these protected zones are still suffering with low coral cover due to overfishing. · Will it solve the issue of climate change as a threat to the coral? · Growing heat-tolerant coral on the reef has given many people hope that it can recover from future bleaching events. · However, if the stress on the coral lasts for too long, or if the rate of change in the temperature or chemistry of the ocean is too fast, then it will become much more difficult for coral to survive. · Scientists are clear that: "coral restoration is not a solution to climate change." *** · "We can try to select heat-tolerant corals and multiply them, but there is a limit to that. ***We can't replant an entire reef. Coral restoration on its own won't be enough." · "Unless we address the underlying problem that's causing climate change, we're not going to stand much of a chance of saving our coral reefs." – Mitigation not adaptation Coral Reef Alliance (CORAL): asked to create effective and durable (sustainable) approaches to coral conservation · worked closely with the resource management committee in the Kubulau district—also known as the KRMC. · The Kubulau community has traditional ownership of the Namena Marine Reserve—one of the largest tabu (no take) areas in Fiji. · Fishing grounds, in Fijian referred to as qoliqoli, are traditionally owned by clans or communities. On occasions of cultural significance (the death of a chief, for example), specific areas of these qoliqolis are temporarily declared as tabu, effectively making it a no-take zone. These tabu areas would rotate over time, ensuring a sustainable and healthy way of ocean resource use – preventing over-fishing. Unfortunately, poaching, overfishing and a general move away from traditional values and management threaten the integrity of the tabu system. A lack of monitoring has meant this has been a less successful form of management. · Through training and micro-grants, we have helped the KRMC increase its management capacity, including establishing a voluntary fee program for visitors. · In 2015, the community raised more than $20,000 to support the Namena Marine Reserve, community infrastructure projects and scholarship programs that have benefitted more than 170 students. · Zonation: nearshore management zoning pilot project. The project will identify different use zones in the marine environment such as fishing, tabu, and tourism.

Question 30

Answer 30

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