8. Demography Flashcards
define birth rate
- 11.17 births per 1000 people
- the number of live births per 1000 of the population per year
define total fertility rate
- 1.44 per woman
- the average number of children per adult woman, across her lifetime
define infant mortality rate
- 3.9 deaths per 1000 live births
- number of deaths of childrem under the age of 1 per 1000 live births per year
define death rate
- 10 per 1000 deaths
- number of deaths per 1000 of the population per year
define life expectancy
- 79.0 years for males and 83.0 for females
- average length of time someone today os expected to live
define dependency ratio
- 58% of British populatio are economically active, 42% defined economicallt inactive
- it is the amount of the working population compared to the non-working population
define immigration
- 1.22 million people migrating
- entering a country
define emigration
- 532,000 people emigrating
- people leaving a country
define net migration
- 688,000 for the year ending December 2023
- number of people moving into a country minus the number of people moving away
define total population
- as of November 14th 2024, population of the uk is 69.2 million
Birth rates
what has happened to the birth rate since 1900?
- baby booms were during 1921, 1945 and 1965
- the number of births began to fall before the second world war and after 1970
- peaks in birth rate graphs were shown to be after the world wars due to soldiers returning home, and housing becoming more affordable
- falls in birth rate graphs is due to the increased use and development of contraception, women no longer wanting to have families, younger generations being more focused on careers
- during 2001 and 2012 there was an increase in birth rates as there were high rates of migration. Migrant mothers (culturally) are more likely to have babies and are at the child bearing age
reasons for the decline in birth rates
why does the changes in the postion of women decrease birth rates?
- female employment outside the home rose rapidly in the period following the second world war
- income from two people to maintain family lifestyles discouraged families from having large numbers of children which would limit the ability of the family to have both parents in paid work
reasons for the decline in birth rates
why does the decline in the infant mortality rate decrease birth rates?
- people are not required to have more babies as no many babies are dying
- no pressure to keep up the population as better healthcare has kept children safe and healthy
reasons for the decline in birth rates
why does children becoming an economic liability decrease birth rates?
- many women mentioned the cost of raising children when explaining their decisions about whether to have children and how many they would have as they argued that children had gone from being an economic asset to being an economic cost
reasons for the decline in birth rates
why does child centredness decrease birth rates?
- parents are increasingly concerned to give their children good oppotunities in life and they believe that they can devote more time to a smaller number of children
- children cost a lot meaning that families would have less of them and focus on the ones they already have
total fertility rate
what has happened to the total fertility rate since 1900?
it has decreased significantly worldwide since the 1900s
total fertility rate
what do the changes in birth rates and total fertility rate show about women’s lifestyle choices today?
show that wome’s lifestyle choices today are more focused om careers and own success rather then building a family at that young age
effects of changes in the birth rate and fertility rate
effects on the family
- smaller family size
- less of a role of childcare
- increased financial stability
- less socialisation for children
effects of changes in the birth rate and fertility rate
effects on the dependency ratio
- youth dependency ratios declined between 1971 and 2011 because of the falling birth rate
- falling youth dependency ratio benefits for public finances and the economy in the short term as there are fewer children to support the wages and taxes od those in work
- in the long-term it leads to a relative shortage of people of working age on whom the dependent populatiom relies for the creation of wealth
effects of changes in the birth rate and fertility rate
effects on public services and policies
- reduced demand for education services
- increased elderly healthcare
- reduced demand for family housing
death rates
what did Harper say the reason of the decline in death rate from 1850-1970 was due to?
- over 3/4 of the decline in death rate from 1850-1970 was due to a fall in the number of deaths from infectious diseases
death rates
which group of people were more at risk from dying from infectious diseases?
babies
death rates
what are ‘diseases of affluence’ (1950s)? which group of people are more at risk from these diseases?
- diseases of affluence are chronic diseases that are linked to a western lifestyle and excessive consumption (e.g. type 2 diabetes, asthma, coronary heart disease, obesity-related disorders, and smoking)
- these diseases have become more commom in industrialised societies and incomes and living standards have risen
reasons for the decline in death rates
improved nutrition
- McKeown argues that improvements in nutrition were more important that medical changes as they made people more resistant to disease
- people have had a better diet by recieving the right amount of nutrients preventing them from dying earlier
reasons for the decline in death rates
medical improvements
- things such as vaccinations and better surgery’s has allowed people to heal from dieseases and prevent them from getting the diease back again
reasons for the decline in death rates
smoking and diet
- the proportion of the adult population who smoke fell from 46% in 1976 to 19% in 2013 with a ban on smoking in places of work (including bars and restaurants) from 2007 helping to cut comsumption
- campaigns to increase the consumption of fruit and vegetables and reduce the consumption of saturated fats have had some success
reasons for the decline in death rates
public health measures and environmental improvements
- the clean air act of 1956 helped to reduce deaths from air polution, it has reduced mortality
- public health campaigns designed to discourage unhealthy lifestyles may also have had an impact
reasons for the decline in death rates
other social changes (such as dangerous manual occupations and family size etc)
- the dangerous occupations such as coal mining and fishing have cut deaths from accidents at work and industrial diseases (such as lung diseases contracted from mining)
life expectancy
what does the term life expectancy refer to?
the average age that someone lives to
life expectancy
males and females born in England in 1900 could be expected to live to how old?
- males - 50
- females - 57
life expectancy
males and females born in England in 2013 could be expected to live to how old?
- males - 90.7
- females - 94
life expectancy
name 1 reason for the lower average life expectancy in 1900
- high infant mortality rate (better chance for babie today to reach the age of 65 then it was for babies born in 1900s to reach their 1st birthday)
class, gender, and region
which gender generally lives longer? why?
women live longer than men as historically women engaged in less risky behaviours and hazardous jobs
class, gender, and region
how does region affect life expectancy?
People in the North and Scotland have lower life expectancy than those in the South due to differences in wealth, healthcare access, and lifestyle factors like diet and exercise.
class, gender, and region
how does an individuals job affect their life expectancy? suggest three reasons why this might be the case
unskilled workers are highly likely to die before 65 compared to professionals, due to more hazardous working conditions, lower income limits access to healthcare and healthy lifestyle, higher stress and less control over work
the ageing population
what was the average age of the UK population in 1971, 2013 and what is is expected to be by 2037?
- 1971 - 34.1 years
- 2013 - 40.3 years
- 2037 - 42.8 years
the ageing population
list three factors that have resulted in the ageing population
- increasing life expectancy - people are living longer into old age
- Declining infant mortality - so that nowadays hardly anyone dies early in life
- declining fertility rate - fewer young people are being born in relation to the number of older people in the population
effects of an ageing population
effects on public services
- older people, especially those over 75, use more health and social care services
- an ageing population may require changes in housing, transport and other services
effects of an ageing population
effects on one-person pensioner households
- now makes up 12.5% of all households, with most bein women due to their longer life expectancy
- the increasing number of retirees raises the dependency ratio, but this is partly offset by fewer dependent children
effects of an ageing population
effects on the dependency ratio
- though older people rely on the working-age population for support, not all are economically dependent
- as the pension age is rising and the number of dependent children in decreasing
ageism, modernity and postmodernity
what is ageism?
the negative sterotyping and unequal treatment of people on the basis of their age
ageism, modernity and postmodernity
how are old people portrayed?
portrays them as a ‘problem’
old age in modern and postmodern society
how is age viewed in modern society?
- age determines fixed life stages (e.g., worker or pensioner), and the elderly are often excluded from work, becoming economically dependent.
- This creates a stigmatised, dependent identity, with ageism arising from their perceived lack of productivity.
old age in modern and postmodern society
how is age viewed in postmodern society?
- age no longer defines identity.
- People can shape their lives through consumption, and the elderly are seen as active consumers of anti-aging products.
- Media portray positive images of aging, challenging ageist stereotypes.
inequality among the old
how does class and gender impact the experience of old age?
- Class: Middle-class people have better pensions and savings, while poorer individuals have shorter life expectancy and more health issues.
- Gender: Women earn less, have lower pensions, and face both ageist and sexist stereotypes.
inequality among the old
policy implication, what did Donald Hirsch (2005) argue?
argued that policies must adapt to an ageing population by improving savings, extending working years, and encouraging older people to downsize their homes to free up housing. This requires a cultural shift in attitudes toward old age.
migration - immigration
briefly outline the timeline of immigration into the UK from 1900-2011
- 1900-1939: Irish immigrants for economic reasons.
- 1950s-1970s: Caribbean, South Asian, and East African Asian immigrants.
- 1980s: Increased immigration from the EU.
- 2011: Ethnic minorities make up 14% of the population.
migration - emigration
since 1900, where have the majority of emigrants moved to?
Most emigrants have moved to the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
migration - emigration
why have people emigrated?
People emigrated mainly due to economic opportunities or political, racial, or religious persecution.
migration - emigration
what are push and pull factors?
- Push factors: Conditions pushing people to leave, like economic hardship.
- Pull factors: Conditions attracting people, like better opportunities.
the impact of migration on UK population structure
how does net migration have an impact on the UK’s population size, considering the UK’s low fertility rate?
Net migration increases the UK’s population, offsetting the low fertility rate and preventing population decline.
the impact of migration on UK population structure
what effect does migration have on age structure?
Migration lowers the average age of the population as immigrants are generally younger than the native population. This helps maintain a younger population overall.
the impact of migration on UK population structure
what affect does migration have on dependency ratio?
- Immigrants are typically of working age, reducing the ratio.
- Immigrants tend to have more children, which increases the ratio initially.
- Over time, their children will enter the workforce, lowering the dependency ratio again.
globalisation and migration
briefly explain each of the following trends of global migration: acceleration, differentiation, the feminisation of migration
- accerleration - There has been a rapid increase in international migration, with migration rising by 33% between 2000 and 2013.
- differentiation - Migration is becoming more diverse, with people migrating for various reasons, such as work, family, education, or fleeing persecution
- the feminisation of migration - Nearly half of all global migrants are now female, often migrating for roles like domestic work, caregiving, or sex work
globalisation and migration
briefly explain how migration impacts a person’s identity. refer to the following: hybrid identities, hierarchal identities and transnational identities
- Migrants may develop combined identities from both their country of origin and their new country (hybrid identities).
- Migrants may rank their multiple identities, prioritizing one over the others (hierarchal identities).
- Migrants may maintain connections to multiple countries and cultures, creating “neither/nor” identities, especially when they move back and forth or sustain ties through modern technology (transnational identities)
the politicisation of migration
explain each of the following: assimilation, multiculturalism
- Assimilation: Immigrants adopt the host country’s culture.
- Multiculturalism: Immigrants retain their culture while coexisting with others.
the politicisation of migration
what is the difference between shallow and deep diversity and why is this problematic for migrants?
- Shallow diversity: Refers to superficial aspects of culture, like food or festivals, that are easily accepted by the state (e.g., chicken tikka masala as a national dish).
- Deep diversity: Refers to deeper cultural practices that are less accepted, such as arranged marriages or the veiling of women. This is problematic because migrants may face discrimination if their cultural practices are seen as “too different” or not aligned with the dominant culture, despite being an important part of their identity.
death rate and ageing population
the fastest growing age bracket in the UK is the over 90 year olds. what percentage of the population will be 65 and over by 2050?
1/4 of people in the UK
death rate and ageing population
what will be the effects of a low death rate and ageing population?
- More beanpole extended families.
- More elderly grandparents looking after children as they are now living for longer
- Less grandparents to look after children with the retirement age going up - currently 66, but expected to continue rising.
- Less workers to pay taxes to fund the pension pot and public services but higher needs and costs - the older a person gets the more their average annual costs to the NHS
- Strain on the NHS and public services
- Strain on care homes
- families and young people having to help out more with the elderly
- More widows/widowers meaning more single person households - leads to more pressure on housing when we are already in a housing shortage crisis
- Social Policy - state pensions triple lock - pensions rise with inflation. Pensions have risen faster than wages.
death rate and ageing population
why does the ageging population pose problems for society and why is this problem particularly bad in china?
- due to China’s one child policy, it causes a very low fertility rate.
- China has a large number of old people, it will continue increasing due to the one child policy
death rate and ageing population
which do you think are the best solutions to these problems and why?
- introduction of robotics to care for elderly as they will have someone to take care of them and not mistreat them
death rate and ageing population
what did Hirsch argue?
- we need a cultural change in out attitudes to the elderly
- old age is a social construct - many old people are still able to work, contribute to society and bring support to others
- our ideas about the elderly will need to change in the future
death rate and ageing population - social construction of ageing
positives of the social construction of ageing
- modern society is built around fixed age stages, where old age is a stage where you are expected to become powerless and dependent, however postmodernists argue we have moved on from fixed age stages and therefore the elderly have greater freedom today
- Hunt, a postmodernist argues that we are now defined by consumption not production. Our age no longer defines us, as the elderly can consume as much as anyone else
- Postmodernists focus on the products being aimed at the elderly as a sign that they are being more valued today, such as plastic surgery, excercise classes, retirement villages etc.
death rate and ageing population - social construction of ageing
negatives of the social construction of ageing
- structured dependency, being excluded from paid work leaves the elderly dependent on others
- Phillipson, a marxist argues that capitalism does not value the elderly as they do not produce profit, so the stae is not willing to waste its resources on them
- Pilcher argues that inequalities are still very prevalent amongst the old and affect their freedom and chances e.g. the working class and women have lower pensions and hence the lower living standards and life expectancy
- Ageism, we are now defined by consumption not production. Our age no longer defines us, as the elderly can consume as much as anyone else
