7-Mark questions Flashcards

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1
Q

Case study - Bangladesh, - Causes of overpopulation

A
  • Bangladesh = 7 largest population in world / 94th in - Land area – thus high population density (>1000 per km²)
  • Few natural resources - relies on agriculture
  • High birth rates since children = labour on farm
  • High birth rates / Death rates have fallen – rapid population increase = natural increase
  • 85% of population = Muslim, leaders don’t encourage use of contraception.
  • Bangladesh = more people than resources
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2
Q

Case Study - Australia, Causes

A

Causes
- Small population size –> 21.7 million + abundant land area –> low population desnity.
- Still ample SUITABLE land to increase setllements
- High rates of emigration bc geographically remote country –> young people move to connected areas eg. Europe.
- Low birth rates + death rates –> population increase = 1.15% per year –> not growing rapidly through natural increase

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3
Q

Case Study - Gambia, consequences (Problems + Benefits)

A

Problems
- Schools in Gambia are overcrowded - children go to school in shfts - 3000 students for 26 classroom in Banjul
- Fertility rates = 5.3 children per woman –> families lack resources to provide for large family –> areas in Banjul –> overcrowded + lack of adequate sanitation.
- Population is approaching carrying capacity
- Widespread deforestation due to need for fuel –> Gambia’s forests will be eradicated in 50 years time.

Benefits
- Gambia will have large working population –> may increase oppurtunity (eg. more labour for development of business)
- Over half of Africa’s population are uner 20. –> Benefits of young people entering workforce.

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4
Q

Case Study - Japan, Causes

A

A
Causes
- Later marriages
- Increase in childless couples
- Cultural preference for 1 child
- Women pursuing careers
- Working environment - not very supportive of families (lack of flexible work times)
- More insecure employment
- Japan also has fewer people in fertile age group - less births overall
- Fertility rate fallen from 2.1 in the 1970’s to 1.36 today.
- One of the lowest birth rates in world.

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5
Q

Case Study - HIV/AIDS in Botswana - Reasons

A

Reasons
- Botswana has the 2nd highest rate of HIV infection in the world (35-38% of the population are infected)
- Only 18% of people in Botswana are married + many polygamous men –> people have multiple sexual partners
- Used to be a lot of ignorance surrounding HIV/AIDS in Botswana
- Lack of doctors/nurses
- Poverty led to some young women becomign prostitutes –> increasing spread of virus

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6
Q

Case Study - Mexico - USA, Push Factors

A
  • High crime rates in Mexico, eg. murder rates = 14 per 100,000 people + drug related crimes –> in past five years, 47,500 people killed in drug related crimes.
  • Unemployment and poverty major problem in Mexico
  • Many work as farmers + extreme temperatures + infertile land cause difficulties –> many financially struggle –> 47% of the population live under the poverty line –> bad living standard.
  • Many natural hazards in Mexico –> suffers from volcanoes, earthquakes, hurricanes and tsunamis.
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7
Q

Case Study - Mexico - USA, Pull Factors

A
  • Better standard of living in USA –> Mexico 10th highest poverty –> 6% of population lack access to ‘improved’ drinking water.
  • Migrant communites in Texas + California pull people towards migrating. (want to live with other Mexican’s)
  • Better education oppurtunities in America, 86.1% of Mexico literate vs 99% of USA.
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8
Q

Case Study - Mexico - USA, Social Impacts

A
  • Problematic assimilation of Mexicans into American communites - language barriers –> tensions between locals and migrants –> crime/violence/racism
  • Introduction of Mexican culture into USA –> improves cultural diversity
  • Language barrier –> led to many schools teaching spanish –> improves skill sets.
  • Large factor of economically active population leaving Mexico –> worse economy + elderly dependents.
  • Majority of migrants = males –> uneven gender ratio in Mexico –> decreased birth rates thus increased dependency ratio.
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9
Q

Case Study - Mexico - USA, Economic Impacts

A
  • Mexicans take menial low-payign jobs that Americans refuse to take. –> improves economy –> social tension ‘migrants stealing jobs’ –> companies replacing American’s with cheaper labour
  • Remittances (migrants send back money, 2nd source of income in Mexico) –> economic help in Mexico –> bad in USA (less money spent in economy)
  • Less people in Mexico = pressure on land / social services / jobs fall.
  • Skilled workforce leaves –> less doctors etc.
  • Mexican population dependent on food growth in Mexico // majority of migrants come from rural –> food shortages.
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10
Q

Case Study - Brazil, Rural - Urban, Push Factors

A
  • Pressure on land (housing difficulties)
  • Standard of living low (long hours, hard work, little pay)
  • People face hardship when the harvest is poor
  • Natural disasters like periods of drought
  • Many workers do not own the land so have no power or any reason to improve it
  • Schools are crowded
  • There is poor health care
  • There is not much investment by the government in some areas
  • Labour replaced by machines
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11
Q

Case Study - Brazil, Rural - Urban, Pull Factors

A
  • Better chances of a job – jobs in cities pay more than farming
  • The hope of a better quality of life with improved housing with electricity and water supply
  • Better schools – only way to escape poverty
  • Better healthcare
  • More exciting with better access to entertainment
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12
Q

Case Study - China’s One Child Policy

(Basic information)

A
  • Anti-natalist policy that stated couples could only have 1 child. (introduced 1979-2015)
  • It was done to reduce births + stabilise population
  • Carrot and stick approach - incentives for those who followed, eg. Cash payments, free healthcare + education for child, preferential access to jobs
  • Disincentives, eg. Fines (up to 10, 20% of annual salary), Job loss, Nanny Police, Food rations. (forced abortions + sterilisations)
  • Ethnic minorites allowed to have more children.
    Rural families allowed to have another child if first child was a daughter.
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13
Q

Case Study - Gambia, Causes

A
  • 95% of Gambians are muslims - some preists discourage using contraception
  • Inequality - women don’t have a large say in family size - don’t discuss family planning (taboo)
  • Contraception isn’t affordable/accessible for some
  • Many farmers - more children = more labour
  • Polygamy - Many men have several wives
  • Fertility rate = 5.3 per woman.
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14
Q

Case Study - Japan, Impacts

A

Impacts
- Few young people being added to the population means that there will be fewer economically active people in the future –> impacts economy since not enough labour –> not enough people to tax –> reduces government funding.
- Will be a need for immigration –> but Japanses do not favour immigration + difficult for migrants to assimilate (hard language)

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15
Q

Case Study - Japan, Solutions

A

Solutions
- Reforms - increasing child benefits, providing tax allowances for families, making childcare more accessible.
- Encourage immigration (to solve labour shortages)
- Government has introduced laws like the ‘Child Care’ and ‘Family Care Leave’ –> parents can recieve…

  • 8 weeks paid leave from work
  • Shorter working hours
  • Maximum of 24 hours overtime a month
  • Economic incentive (eg. Yamatsuri offers parents $4,600 a birth + $460 a year for 10 years)
  • Businesses urged to give employees time over
  • Shops offer discounts to larger families
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16
Q

Case Study - HIV/AIDS Botswana, Issues

A

Issues
- Social stigma to be diagnosed with disease as people have been shunned by their communities. –> thus many people refuse to get tested –> If people don’t know they have the disease –> more likely to pass it on to others.
- Life expectancy fallen dramatically bc of high rates of infection –> life expectancy in Botswana was 58 years in 2011, having fallen from 65 in 1991.
- Most affected group is age range 15-40 –>productive sector of the population –> labour shortage bc of dying/sick people–> Thought that 1/3 of Botwana’s workforce is infected with disease.
- Children become orphans as parents pass away.
- Children get disease in-utero

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17
Q

Case Study - HIV/AIDS Botswana, Solutions

A

Solutions
- Pregnant women given antiretroviral drugs since 2002 –> 56 child deaths per 1000 in 2001 now 11.1 deaths per 1000 in 2011.
- Companies (eg. Debswana (mining company)) proivde free healthcare + access to antiretroviral durgs + contraception + classes about contraception
- Government carries out awareness campaigns on TV, radio + billboards
- Routine testing carried out + awareness campaigns to promote antiretroviral treatment
- Condoms distributed for free

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18
Q

Case Study - Bangladesh, Impacts

A

Impacts of overpopulation
- Overcrowded - people forced to live on flood risk land. Floods have cause more than 1 million deaths in past 200 years.
- 40% of population = unemployed. + low wages + short shifts –> low income –> low standard of living
- Not enough education + healthcare for large population. Only 48% of population = literate
- High infant mortality rate

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19
Q

Ageing Population - Impacts

A

Impacts
- Many elderly dependent causes government difficulities to pay for pensions + healthcare for elderly.
- Social difficulties - young have to care for old (time consuming)
- Eldery people in Japan cannot afford to reitre –> work well into 70s
- Many elderly live below poverty line (low pensions) –> increased homeless elders
- Many depressed elders –> 1/3 of Japan’s suicides are above age 65.

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20
Q

Ageing Population - Solutions

A

Solutions
- Increase birth rates (improves population balance)
- Offer less demading part time jobs for elderly population
- Increase retirement age –> still contribute to economy
- Roobotic care systems have been suggested –> to help bathe elderly (cons - can malfunction + elderly benefit from social contact)

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21
Q

Case Study - Australia, Impacts

A

Impacts
- Large reserves of natural resources (Gold, Copper, Natural gas + uranium) - not able to use all resources –> exports (earnings = $200 billion anually.)
- Strong economy + good education –> literacy rate = 99.9% + good healthcare
- Excellent living standard = could support more people.
- Despite many resources - small workforce. If larger workforece they could better exploit natural resources –> grow economy –> better standard of living.

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22
Q

Case Study - Norrland, Causes

A
  • Norrland = 60% of area, 11% of population
  • Population Density = 4.9 people per km²
  • Skanderna found in Northern Sweden near Norwegian border (rough, tall terrain)
  • Large areas of uninhabitable marshland in Norrland.
  • Cities cluster by coast.
  • Extremely low temperatures (snow 1 meter sometimes) + sunlight radiation –> difficult transport when snow + no agriculture.
  • Soil in norrland = moraine –> unsuited for agriculture + iron sulphide in it can cause rusting in houses
  • Moraine suited for pine forests.
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23
Q

Case Study - Svealand, Causes

A
  • Svealand + Götaland contain 89% of Swedens population
  • 94 people per km²
  • Capital city Stockholm –> job oppurtunites etc.
  • Soil in southern Sweden very fertile + very temperate climate –> agriculture very easy
  • Many ports for trade –> cities established in history.
  • Many big cities –> better living standards/ government funding/ oppurtunities –> clustering
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24
Q

China Case Study - Consequences

A
  • Birth rate has fallen, parent concentrate resources on one child, 300-400 million births prevented.
  • Against human rights, uneven gender ratio –> led to forced marriages, future ageing population
  • Illegal abortions, Abandoned babies (typically girls)
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25
Q

How are cliffs formed

A
  1. Waves attack the base of the cliff and erode it through processes like hydraulic action and abrasion.
  2. A wave cut notch is created at the base of the cliff.
  3. The cliff becomes unsupported (by base) and collapses.
  4. Material at the base of the cliff is smoothed out through abrasion forming a wave cut platform.
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26
Q

How are headlands and bays formed?

A
  1. Headlands and bays form on discordant coastlines where there are layers of hard and soft rock next to the coast.
  2. Waves erode the different types of rock at different types of rates - soft rock erodes mroe quickly.
  3. Soft rock is eroded by processes like hydraulic action. It cuts backwards forming a concave shaped bay.
  4. The hard rock is eroded more slowly and the headland is left protruding out to sea.
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27
Q

How are caves, arches, stacks and stumps formed?

A

These landforms were headlands that have been eroded.

Headland –> caves –> arches –> stacks –> stumps

  1. Abrasion and Hydraulic action forms a cave.
  2. Erosion and waves cut through headland (cave) to form an arch which is continually widened at its base.
  3. The roof of the arch becomes too heavy to be supported and collapses.
  4. Wave cut notches undercut the stack. It collapses leavinga stump. The stump gradually disappears after time.
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28
Q

Beach formation

A

Beaches are made up from eroded material that has been transported and then deposited by the sea.

Deposition occurs when waves have limited energy, so beaches often form in sheltered areas like bays.

Constructive waves build up beaches as they have a strong swash and a weak backwash.

Sandy beaches are usually found in bays where the water is shallow, and the waves have less energy.

Pebble beaches often form where cliffs are being eroded, and where there are higher energy waves.

Beaches profile has lots of ridges called berms. They show the lines of high tides and storm tides.

A sandy beach typically has a gentle sloping profile, whereas a shingle beach can be much steeper.

The size of the material is larger at the top of the beach, due to the high-energy storm waves carrying large sediment.

The smallest material is found nearest the water as the waves break here and break down the rock through attrition.

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29
Q

Spit

A

A spit is an extended stretch of sand or shingle jutting out into the sea from the land. Spits occur when there is a change in the shape of the landscape or there is a river mouth.

  1. Sediment carried along the coastline by longshore drift.
  2. Coastline change direction but longshore drift continues in the same direction.
  3. Material is deposited in the sheltered water beyond the headlnd. It builds upwards and outwards forming a spit.
  4. Winds blow in another direction forming a hooked end on the spit.
  5. Salt march develops in sheltered area behind the spits.
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30
Q

Sand Dunes

A

Large heaps of sand that form on the dry backshore of a sandy beach.

For a sand dune to form it needs…

  • An obstacle (eg. driftwood) for dune to form against
  • Large flat beach, lare supply of sand, onshore wind to move sand to the back of the beach
  • Large tidal range (time for the sand to dry)

Berm – Embryo – Fore – Yeallow – Grey –Slack – Mature

Least – Most vegetation

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31
Q

Dune types

A

Embryo - Mainly sand + some marram grass (dune forms around wood/rock/shingle)

Fore - Sand + plants (embryo dunes are stabilised by vegetation)

Yellow - Yellow sand + marram grass

Grey - Grey sand + more fiverse (soil nutrients high bc of rotting vegetation)

Slack - pond

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32
Q

Slumping

A

Area of sturated land slips downhill.

  1. Soft boulder clay holds rainwater and runoff.
  2. Waves erode the base of the cliff. Wave cut notch is formed - Clay becomes saturated, forms a slip plane.
  3. Weight of saturated cliff causes it to slump. Cliff collapse occurs.
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33
Q

Cliffs (+ How they are created)

A
  • Most common feature on a coast, steep faces of rock and soil.
  • Shaped by erosion / weathering
  • On soft rock cliffs (eg. clay) cliff slumping occurs –> thus concave shaped shape.
  • On hard rock cliffs, cliff collapse is more common –> thus vertical face.
  1. Waves erode the base of the cliff through processes such as hydraulic action.
  2. Wave cut notch is created at the bottom of the cliff.
  3. Cliff becomes unsupported and collapses.
  4. Material at the base of the cliff is smoothed through material being pulled back (abrasion).
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34
Q

Holderness (Causes of Erosion)

A

Made of boulder clay → soft (easily eroded)

Erosion = wave cut notch → saturated sediment + slip plane = slumping

Strong currents transport material along shore → less beaches → cliffs are exposed = faster erosion.

Northern part = chalk = headland = Flamborough head.

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35
Q

Holderness (Effects of cliff recession)

A
  • 14 villages have been lost since Roman times.
  • Farmers have lost property → force to migrate / diversify.
    Eg. Ringborough farm lost ½ of property since 1939 → had to migrate backwards from coast + diversify → also sells bottled gas.
  • Hard engineering necessary by Hornsea + other places.
  • Means that it speeds up erosion further down the coast.
  • Bad for other settlements + Spurn Point.
  • Spurn Point is home to several bird species, mostly waders –> at risk of eroding –> loss of habitat.
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36
Q

Holderness (Coastal management - Defenses)

A
  • Use of groynes to trap moving beach material and provide a protective beach in front of the cliff
  • The construction of sea walls and revetments as wave-resistant structures at the base of the cliffs
  • Artificial off-shore breakwaters like tyres and concrete blocks, forcing waves to break off-shore.
  • Sea wall used to protect Easington Gas Station (cost 4.5 million)
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37
Q

Holderness (Defences at Mappleton)

A
  • 1991 rock revetment + 2 rock groynes built to encourage beach buildup. –> decreases erosion bc waves break on beach.
  • However caused erosion to speed up south of Mappleton.
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38
Q

Tropical Storm (Formation)

A
  • Made when thunderstorms move across tropical ocean (27C )
  • Warms air above ocean → warm air rises → forms clouds + low pressure area
  • Air moves into low pressure area → increase in wind speed etc etc
  • Trade winds blow wind + spinning of earth causes the tropical storm to spin.
  • May take hours / days to fully form
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39
Q

Hurricane Katrina Case Study (Impacts)

A
  • August 2005
  • Category 4 storm + storm surges above 6 metres.
  • New orleans worst affected → Levees broke → flooding → evacuation order but poor stayed
  • 1.2 million homeless + 1200 people died
    People sought refuge in superdome stadium → unhygienic
  • Oil facilities damaged → petrol prices rose in UK + USA
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40
Q

Hurricane Katrina (Responses)

A
  • UK sent food aid.
  • National guard mobilised (maintain + restore law and order)
  • $50 billion dollars by the government in aid.
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41
Q

U.S. Gulf Coast (Threats)

A

Annually approx. 10 tropical storms develop over the ocean in this area → about 6 become hurricanes. Eg. Hurricane Katrina

BP oil spill 2010 → economic consequences for fishing, tourism + oil industry. + consequences for human health. (Largest marine oil spill)

Rising sea levels = flooding risk.

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42
Q

U.S. Gulf Coast (Oppurtunities)

A

Beaches in Florida = tourism = jobs + economic growth

Commercial fishing = multi-million dollar industry in gulf of Mexico.

Oil industry → home to ⅕ of crude oil production in US + 45% of US petroleum refinement.

Port of Louisiana + Houston = very important for the economy.

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43
Q

What are Coral Reefs

A
  • Coral reefs = large underwater structures made of the skeletons of coral, = marine invertebrate animals.
  • Individual coral = polyp → excrete calcium carbonate → produces hard exoskeleton to protect the soft body.
  • Polyps grown on the exoskeleton
  • New polyps grow on existing exoskeletons → coral → coral reefs.
  • Several polyps form a colony (coral) → several colonies form a reef.
  • Algae live in the tissue of polyps → symbiotic relationship (coral house algae + algae makes food for both)
  • Polyp = translucent → take on colour of algae.
  • Coral under stress → evict algae = coral bleaching
44
Q

Where are coral reefs located?

A
  • Coral reefs located in tropical oceans near the equator.
  • Found 30 degrees north and south of the equator.
  • Largest coral reef is the Great Barrier Reef in Australia.
  • Second largest coral reef can be found off the coast of Belize, in Central America.
  • Other reefs found in Hawaii, the Red Sea, + other areas in tropical oceans.
45
Q

What conditions do coral reefs need to develop?

A
  • Usually found 30 degrees north south of equator –> ocean temperatures perfect. - Cant survive below 18 degrees celsius.
  • Optimum temp 22-25 C
  • Need shallow water (max 60m) + clear water –> light can reach reefs –> algae can photosynthesise –> coral feed on algae
  • If sediment settles on polyps, they are unable to feed.
  • Cant grow above tide level bc they need oxygen + water brought by breaking waves + can’t survive lone periods above water.
  • Grow best in conditions of high salinity as freshwater kills coral. For this reason, breaks in reefs often occur at river mouths.
46
Q

What are mangroves?

A
  • Mangroves are trees or shrubs which grow in tidal, tropical, coastal swamps.
  • They have tangled roots that grow above ground and form dense thickets.
  • It is thought that they originate from South-east Asia and then spread across the globe.
  • Because they grow in the intertidal zone, they live in a constantly changing environment.
47
Q

Where are mangroves located

A
  • In sheltered tropical and subtropical coastal areas.
  • In general, this is an area between latitudes of 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south of the equator.
48
Q

Conditions needed for development (Mangroves)

A
  • Thrive in hot, muddy, salty conditions (would quickly kill most plants)
  • Most grow in warm waters (30 degrees north + south of the equator)
  • Only grow in areas where the temperature remains above 20 degrees Celsius
  • Grow in calm, shallow, sheltered areas with no strong waves or currents.
  • Develop in areas where there is a large area between the high and low water mark.
49
Q

Characteristics (Mangroves)

A
  • Mangrove swamps contain many different species of tree.
  • Live in salty water as they are halophytes (salt tolerant plants).
  • Home to a diverse range of species including fish, birds, frogs, snakes, crocodiles, swamp rats, monkeys and tigers.
  • Create a barrier to the shoreline and protect it from storms.
50
Q

The Sundarbans, Bangladesh (Mangroves)

A
  • Sundarban = large 10,000 km² mangrove forest in Bay of Bengal (formed by super confluence of Ganges + other rivers)
  • Freshwater swamp first lie inland from mangrove forests
  • Intersected by a network of waterways + small islands = accessible by boat.
  • Fertile soils → converted to agriculture.
  • Home to spotted deer, Bengal tiger + crocodiles.
  • Protective barrier for millions against flooding.
  • UNESCO world heritage site
51
Q

The Great Barrier Reef

A
  • A barrier reef
  • Sits on remains of the Great Dividing Range (mountain system NorthEast of Australia)
  • Polyp’s attached to remains of mountain range
  • Largest and longest reef complex in the world –> 1,250 miles.
  • Largest structure made of living organisms.
  • Very little variation in sea temperature –> optimum temperature achieved –> perfect for coral growth.
  • Water also crystal-clear up to 100 feet
  • Very biodiverse –> contains 400 types of coral, 1500 types of fish + 4000 types of mollusk. + has sea cow + green turtle (nearly extinct)
52
Q

Eyjafjallajökull - Causes

A
  • Iceland formed at a divergent plate boundary (north american + eurasian plate moving apart, 1-5 cm annually) + Iceland lies over a hotspot.
  • Plate boundary creates Mid Atlantic Ridge + Iceland + chain of volcanoes along the SE Rift zone of Iceland.
53
Q

Eyjafjallajökull - Effects

A
  • 800 people evacuated due to glacial outburst floods.
  • Travel disrupted –> 95,000 flights cancelled between 14-21 April 2010.
  • Eruption produced 0.3 cubic kilometres of ash.
  • Economic losses of 5 billion euros.
  • Businesses lost trade.
  • Perishable foods were wasted as they could not be transported.
  • People were stranded –> unable to get to work.
  • Timing of the disruption was during Easter holidays –> levels of tourism were high.
54
Q

Eyjafjallajökull - Prediction

A
  • Gas sampling: changes in gas composition indicate the activity levels of magma underground.
  • GPS technology: used to monitor any significant changes on the volcano so that the risk of activity e.g. pyroclastic flows can be assessed.
  • Seismic monitoring: any minor earthquake activity is detected using seismographs and is recorded. Rising blobs of magma can cause earthquake activity and so this may be a sign of an eruption.
55
Q

Eyjafjallajökull - Prevention

A

Glacial outburst floods : Caused when heat from the volcano melts glacial ice, are a real risk in Iceland. 800 people were evacuated when the volcano flooded as they were in a flood risk zone.

Aircraft were prevented from flying into/out of northern Europe for 6 days as there were concerns that the ash cloud could cause safety risks.

56
Q

Why people live in Iceland despite the risk?

A
  • Volcanic activity is closely monitored using seismometers + GPS technology.
  • Tourism jobs in Iceland - There is a Lava Interactive Centre (museum about Iceland)
  • Geothermal energy - 66% of electricity geothermal
  • Ash from volcanic eruptions cause fertile soil –> agriculture.
57
Q

Turkey Earthquake - Causes

A
  • Transform/conservative plate boundary - Anatolian plate is sliding past the Arabian plate.
  • Tension had been building up for a long time on the East Anatolian fault.
  • Pressure was released and the plates slipped along a strike slip fault.
  • Shockwaves were sent out causing severe shaking of the crust.
  • The earthquake measured 7.8Mv.
  • As is the case with many earthquake events the mainshock was followed by many aftershocks, including three above magnitude 6.0.
  • Aftershocks represent minor re-adjustments along
    the portion of the fault that slipped at the time of the mainshock.
58
Q

Turkey Earthquake - Impacts

A
  • 55,000+ deaths across SE Turkey and NW Syria.
  • 6500 buildings in Turkey collapsed across 10 cities, including a 2000 year old castle in the city of Gaziantep.
  • Hundreds of thousands left homeless across SE Turkey and NW Syria.
  • People left to fend for themselves with many camped out in makeshift shelters in supermarket car parks, mosques, roadsides or amid the ruins, often desperate for food, water and heat.
59
Q

Why was the Turkey earthquake so bad?

A
  • It was a major earthquake (7.8) with strong aftershocks (7.5).
  • Earthquake struck close to large urban settlements + densely populated areas with many Syrian refugees.
  • Cold winter weather made relief efforts difficult + people trapped under rubble have less chance of survival.
  • No earthquakes above magnitude (7.0) since 1800 –> badly prepared.
  • Turkey has seismic building codes but many buildings pre-date the codes and buildings had not been retrofitted.
  • In some cases, it also seemed that proper building codes had not been followed due to corruption - this was seen in the many new apartment buildings that collapsed.
  • Despite residents paying an earthquake tax for years, the emergency response to the earthquake was found to be poor - people complained of a lack of equipment, expertise and support to rescue those trapped under rubble.
  • Relief to Syria was complicated by the ongoing civil war in the country.
60
Q

Turkey Earthquake - Management

A

Prediction

  • Seismologists use GPS technology to analyse stress build-up on faults. The East Anatolian fault was predicted to have a large earthquake soon.

Prevention

  • Turkey introduced a seismic building code after a large earthquake in 1999. However, many buildings pre-date the codes and some recent buildings have also not been built to code due to corruption (developers paid money to officials and got a certificate saying the building was safe)
  • People in SE Turkey paid an earthquake tax - this is meant to help with relief efforts; however, the efforts were found to be poor with people complaining of a lack of equipment, expertise and support to rescue those trapped under rubble.
  • Countries, such as the USA, deployed search and rescue personnel to Turkey (the US sent 150 specialists).
  • UN aid convoys were not permitted access to Syria to provide assistance until 3 days after the earthquake.
  • The international community pledged aid to Turkey and Syria.
  • Mexico sent search dogs to help.
61
Q

Why people live in California

A
  • San Andreas fault = transform fault
  • Early warning systems alert people ($1 billion annually backed)
  • Schools often practise emergency drills
  • Buildings have earthquake proof designs (eg. One Rincon Hill built with steel buckling-restrained braces)
  • Silicon Valley = many jobs (700,000 people employed)
  • California = good healthcare + educaiton = good standard of living
  • Beautiful coast + nice climate, (summer = 30C, winter = 10C + low rainfall)
62
Q

Fair Oaks Farm - Farming System

A

Inputs

-72 Cow carousel (for efficiency when milking)
-25,000 acres
-Flat terrain + Fertile soil + 163 day growing season

Outputs

  • Produces enough milk for 8 million people
  • Biogas (methane) from manure

Processes

  • Manure converted into energy (reduces waste + pollution)
63
Q

Fair Oaks Farm

A
  • A large commercial diary farm found within the Corn Belt (Region good for farming bc of deep fertile soil.
  • There is a long growing season there (163 days)
    . Tourist center –> educates about milk/calcium (Shows cheese + ice cream production)
    (Diversification)
  • Found in Indiana, USA
64
Q

Case study - Food shortages - Sudan (Sahel) - Physical factors

A
  • Low rainfall in South Sudan
  • Increased rainfall variability (uncertain)
  • Increased use of marginal land (little to no possible agricultural usage) leading to degradation
  • Flooding
65
Q

Case study - Food shortages - Sudan (Sahel) - Agricultural factors

A
  • Food production per capita –> highly variable + unchanging trend
  • Unchanging or falling crop yields
  • Low and falling fertiliser use
  • Lack of a food surplus for use in crisis
  • Conflict in Darfur reduces food production + distribution
  • (Limited access to markets to buy food or infrastructure to distribute it)
66
Q

What type of energy does Iceland use - Case study

A
  • 65% geothermal energy bc of Mid Atlantic ridge –> used for greenhouses + pools + lagoons (eg. blue lagoon)
  • 20% HEP bc of glacial rivers + waterfalls
  • Wind power bc strong winds (flat island + Atlantic) (Specialised trubines used bc of strong winds.
  • 15% fossil fuels
  • 85% renewable energy
67
Q

What are the advantages of Icelands energy supply - Case study

A
  • Clean energy + no pollution
  • Cheap production
  • Creates energy surplus (sold to other countries for profit)
  • Geothermal = 24/7 energy production
68
Q

What are the disadvantages of Icelands energy supply - Case study

A
  • Geothermal power stations = expensive + ugly + confined to certain geographical/geological locations
  • Systems may trigger earthquakes, release of hydrogen sulphide (rotten egg smell)
  • Geothermal fluids injected into ground for steam = slightly toxic = difficultto dispose of
69
Q

Tanzania - Impacts of water shortages

A
  • Tanzania –> one of poorest countries in world –> 2/3 of pop. experience water scarcity (infrastructure to transport water not there)
  • Thus women + girls walk to collect water from riverbeds (risk of contamination) + unable to attend schol + women thus can’t have jobs –> less income for families
  • Risk of cholera spreading in water / other water borne disease –> children sick –> no school –> money needed for medicine
  • Communities with water points –> 12% increase school attendance
70
Q

Colorado river - Location

A

Loacted SW USA + N Mexico (states include Wyomin, Nevada + Colorado (where it originates in rocky mountains)

71
Q

Water management schemes in Colorado river

A
  • 14 major dams (eg. Lake mead + Hoover dam)
  • Aqueducts + canals (eg. All American Canal –> California agriculture)
  • Desalination plant in California
72
Q

Why water management schemes at Colorado river is necessary

A
  • Water for 40 million people + 7 states
  • Water used to produce approx. 15% of USA’s produce/livestock
  • Recreational industries, eg. fishing, camping, hiking etc.
  • Hydro-electric power for electricity
73
Q

Environmental impacts on Colorado river

A
  • River has shrunk/dried up –> habital loss for birds + fish
  • Now the river barely makes it to the Gulf of California
74
Q

Advantages of Colorado river - Water management schemes

A
  • Lake mead –> recreational purposes
  • Provides drinking water for 40 million people
  • Renewable enery
  • Water provided to 7 st
  • Economic benefits (eg. Las Vegas) –> water led to growth of leisure + tourism industry
75
Q

Disadvantages of Colorado river - Water management schemes

A
  • Dams –> loss of settlements + habitats
  • Water stress (usage unsustainable bc too many competing users) –> (conflict)
  • Not enough water to support farming in Mexico
  • Desalination plants = Expensive + uses a lot of energy.
76
Q

Foxconn factory - Company + location

A

Foxconn = Taiwanese electronics company manufacturing products for TNCs eg. Apple.

  • Largest factory complex located in Shenzhen (city in southern China) –> 450,000 workers employed at Foxconn City (walled campus)
  • Employed work on assembly lines, putting together iphones + ipads, etc…
77
Q

Foxconn city - Reasons for location (Case study - Secondary industry area)

A
  • Found on outskirts of Shenzhen bc of flat land + available space for expansion (eg. dorms for workers)
  • Special economic zones (SEZ) found in this area to attract foreign investment. –> SEZ’s experience tax cuts, duty-free imporation + no export taxes.
  • Transport links - well connected via roads + rail links. + Coastal city with large container port –> goods can be distributed easily overseas etc.
  • Supply Network - Many compnents needed for production of iphone = located within 50-mile radius.
  • Low-cost labour - Available in Shenzhen bc large supply of young rural-urban migrants.
78
Q

Apple - TNC case study

A
  • US based TNC manufacturing phones.
  • Research and development occurs in Silicon valley, California (HQ)
  • Raw materials sourced from mines in Democratic Republic of Congo (LEDC)
  • Mining = pollutes lakes/rivers, threatens gorilla habitats + led by rebel groups using profits to pruchase weapons + child labour
  • Component suppliers = Samsung (silicon chips = outsourced) + Sony (cameras)

Assembly

  • Manufactured componenets sent to China for final assembly (Outsourced)
  • Foxconn city
  • Assembled + packaged phones = air-freighted to distribution centers.
79
Q

Advantages of Foxconn city production - Local

A
  • Wages are higher than most other Chinese factory jobs
  • More people + money in area –> business/services boom eg. restaurants to serve workers.
  • Housing provided for workers
  • Quality of life in Shenzhen = better than in the countryside + helps them support their family
80
Q

Advantages of Foxconn city production - National

A
  • Foxconn = countries largest employer
  • Jobs generated from supplying expensive componenets to foxconn
81
Q

Disadvantages of Foxconn city production - Local

A
  • Series of employee suicides bc of poor working conditions
  • Cramped dormitories for workers
  • Child labour (16 years old) enforced in local schools + illegal overtime being worked.
82
Q

Disadvantages of Foxconn city production - National

A
  • Part of the production has been moved from China to Vietnam due to the trade war between the US and China.
83
Q

Tourism in Kenya - Case Study (conservation + management)

A
  • Serengeti is popular for safari holidays eg. seeing Zebras + wildebeest.
  • It is a national park in the south west of Kenya inhabited by the Maasai tribe.
84
Q

Positive impacts of tourism in Kenya (case study)

A

Conservation - Higher incentive to protect environmetn + set up national parks protecting wildlife.

Employment - Generated jobs

Infrastructure built

Investment - Profits from tourism invested in social services

Educational for tourists + get to see beautiful landscapes

Insight into Maasai culture –> teaching of traditional crafts

85
Q

Disadvantages of tourism - Kenya (Case Study)

A

Environmental damage - Erosion bc of jeeps, animals disturbed by tourists –> changes in feeding/mating patterns, littering, removal of vegetation for roads –> soil erosion.

Inequality - Tourism profits often go to MEDCs / wealthy CEOs

Traditional Maasai life disrupted by setting up Serengeti national parks –> Farming methods no longer feasible.

Zooification of Maasai culture.

Water cycle damage - Diverting water for tourist can exploit local water reserves –> local people/ animals thirsty + pollution in water.

Diruptive tourist attraction eg. bars/ discos.

86
Q

Basecamp explorer - Ecotourism in Maasai Mara, Kenya

A
  • Camp with tents –> activities include nature walks, tree planting, day safari tours.
  • Maasai designs incorporated
  • Extensive use of local material for construciton + buildings can be dismantled and safely taken away
  • Tree-top wildlife viewing post = reduced need for game drives
  • Solar energy used
  • Garbage sorted + composted
  • Waste water collected + reused to water plants
  • Use of dry toilets –> limits water
  • Trees planted by camp
  • Camp supports charity
  • 95% of staff = local.
87
Q

What to write on a 7-mark question about impacts of global warming.

A
  • Desertification in Sahel region (80% of Sahel is affected)
  • Hurricanes/ tropical storms at US Gulf coast
  • Coral bleaching in Australia (great barrier reef)
  • Glacial icecaps in Arctic are melting –> polar bears becomign extinct bc rely on icecaps to hunt for seals + camoflage.
  • Wildfires, rising temps, rising sea levels.
88
Q

How are deserts formed? (high air pressure)

A
  • Sunlight is most direct at the equator (meaning it is the warmest)
  • Warm air rises and then condenses, forming clouds.
  • Colder + denser air flows poleward (away from equator)
  • As it moves it precipitates and loses its humidity.
  • Once cool + less dense it sinks at approx. 30 degrees north/ south of the equator –> forming high air pressure
  • The air warms up again by the sun, however, it has no moisture –> leading to extremely dry + hot deserts.
89
Q

How are deserts formed? (rainshadows)

A
  • Warm moist air moves across a coastal range
  • It then reaches a mountain range and is forced up (increasing altitude)
  • This causes it to cool + condense + form clouds + precipitate
  • Once having passed over the mountain it continues to sink (with no moisture) + heats –> forming dry + hot deserts.
90
Q

How are deserts formed? (Inland on continents)

A
  • While moving across an ocean, air picks up moisture –> humidity
  • When reaching land the moist air begins condensing + precipitating (however, no new moisture is being picked up)
  • Eventually all moisture is removed from the air as wind travels inwards
    –> Dry + hot air formed inland –> Deserts
91
Q

How are deserts formed? (Cold ocean currents)

A
  • Cold ocen winds meet warm land air –> Mositure condenses + fog formed.
  • Thus moisture is removed from air and further inland a desert is formed.

(These currents are typically found on the west side of continents)

–> Why deserts form on the west side of continents (check with Miss Kappa)

92
Q

Sonoran desert

A
  • Hot desert
  • Located in subtropical region of North America (hot summer + mild winters)
  • Has many saguaro cacti
  • Summer temp = usually 40C + sometimes more than 48C
  • High diurnal temperature range
  • 75-500mm annual rainfall
  • July - mid-September = summer monsoon (thunderstorms
  • Bi-seasonal rainfall
93
Q

Why the Sonoran desert formed

A
  • High pressure air
  • Rainshadow effect (air blows across pacific ocean + picks up msoiture. When the air hits the mountains on the Arizona-California border it precipitates
  • Cold ocean currents (california current) cause desert to be formed inthe west side of the continent
94
Q

Typical plant adaptations in the desert

A

Small leaves - Less water lsot from plant by transpiration (bc smaller surface area.

Tap roots - Long roots (7-10 metres long) that reach deep under ground to acess water supplies –> much longer + bigger than plant visible at surface.

Spines - (instead of leaves, eg. cacti) Spines lose less water than leaves + prevent animals from eating plant

Waxy skin - Reduces water loss by transpiration

Water storage - Eg. succulents store water + have waxy skin

95
Q

Typical animal adaptations in deserts

A
  • Nocturnal (bc cooler at night)
  • Burrow underground (colder)
  • Big ears to keep them cool
  • Light-coloured coats –> reflect sunlight
  • Diet/ food contains moisture (eg. seeds) not necessary to find as much water.
96
Q

Tropical rainforest climate - Characteristics

A
  • Consistently high temperatures throughout the year – an average of about 25°C
  • Annual temperature range: less than 5°C
  • Rainfall – amount exceeds 2000mm
  • Rainfall– seasonal distribution: fairly evenly distributed throughout the year
  • Wind: low
  • Cloud: heavy
  • Humidity: high
  • Pressure: low
  • Little seasonal variation
97
Q

Plant adaptations in the rainforest

A

Lianas –> use other plants to grow to sunlight.

Tree trunks –> tall + thin to reach sunlight. Bark = smooth to allow water to drip down to roots easily

Butress roots –> large roots + large surface area to support large tree

Epiphytes –> Live on other plants (more sunlight). Get nutrients from air + water –> not soil.

Drip tips –> pointy tips on leaves –> water easily runs off (instead of breaking plant)

Waxy leaves –> water easily runs off.

98
Q

Animal adaptations in the rainforest

A

Sloth –> Slow (not seen by predators), Camoflaged fur, long claws to grip onto branches

Spider monkey –> long, strong limbs to climb through trees + prehensile tail (for gripping)

Flying frog –> fully webbed hands + feet + flap of loose skin between limbs so it can glide from plant to plant

Toucan –> Long large bill to reach fruit (if branches don’t support its weight)

Poison dart frog –> poisonous + bright to warn predators (some frogs aren’t poisonous, only bright –> still a form of protection)

99
Q

Reasons for desert formation

A

Distance from oceans
Winds blowing accross large areas of land (loses humidity)
Low humidity + lack of evaporation
Sparse vegetation (no transpiration)
High air pressure
Descending air
Rain shadow effect
Cold offshore currents

100
Q

Examples of vegetation in the Sonoran desert + their features of survival

A

Saguaro cactus - Water storage, Spikes, Taproot, Ribs on plant allows for expansion when storing water

Prickly pear - Spines (reduced water loss + protection), Water storage

Palo verde - Bark = chlorophyll (can photosynthesise even when leaves dry up), deep root system, deciduous to prevent water loss

101
Q

Examples of animals in the Sonoran desert + their features of survival

A

Gila woodpecker - Strong beaks to hollow out hole in saguaro cactus (cool in there + spines protect woodpecker from preadators)

Kangaroo rat - Nocturnal, Longer loop of henle to reabsorb as much water as possible in the kidney, Seeds they eat contain water

102
Q

Causes of deforestation

A

Agriculture - Cleared for commercial farming (eg. palm oil/ soybeans/ cattle)

Logging - For fuel –> clear felling. Specific trees for furniture (eg. mahogany) –> selective loggin.

Road building - ccess to new settlements/mining areas etc.

Mineral extraction - eg. Gold mining in brazil

Energy development - Building of dams causes areas to be flooded –> Submerged forest = root rot = acidic water = corroding HEP turbines

Settlement / population growth - Building of houses due to overcrowded cities. (occurs in Brazil for poor people)

103
Q

Impacts of deforestation in the Amazon rainforest

A

Soil erosion - Roots bind soil together –> without this heavy rainfall removes topsoil. Nutrients cycle also disrupted –> soil loses fertility –> area abandoned –> more rainforest cut down for agriculture.

Loss of biodiversity - Animals + plants go extinct bc rainforests = most biodiverse areas –> loss of organisms which may help produce medicinal drugs in future.

Climate change - CO2 emissions when burning trees + less CO2 absorbed. Reduces humidity in air –> increase temp + dryness bc less evaporation (endothermic)

Economic development - Tourism declines, less timber, local people = poverty bc they rely on rainforest (eg. rubber tappers who extract natural rubber from rubber trees)

Indigenous tribes threatened (exposed to diseases they don’t have immunity to + lose land + sometimes killed by loggers)

80% of deforestation = cattle ranches
Deforestation = 15% of CO2 emissions
3 species go extinct per hour

104
Q

Local impacts of deforestation

A

Positives

  • Employment
  • Production of necessary raw materials
  • Energy from dams created

Negatives

  • Loss of biodiversity
  • Tribes threatened/die
  • Soil becomes infertile –> Low yield
  • Bad working conditions
105
Q

Global impacts of deforestation

A

Positives

  • Raw materials created –> allows for production of certain goods

Negatives

  • Loss of potential medicines
  • CO2 emissions –> climate change
106
Q

Ways to decrease deforestation

A

Monitoring - Sattelite technology to stop illegal logging
Environmental charities + raising awareness
Rubber tapping - Doesn’t hurt trees (extractive reserve farming - materials naturally growing in forests are harvested)
Afforestation - Replanting trees
Selective logging - Only rtees a certain height etc.
Quotas
Natural reserves/National parks
Eco-tourism

107
Q

Amazon rainforest - Climate (7-mark question)

A
  • Equatorial Climate
  • Hot average temperature all year round
  • High precipitation (over 2000mm a year)
  • Hadley cell at the equator –> air heated by sun –> rises (low pressure) –> cools + condenses –> clouds + precipitation (rain)
  • High levels of soil moisture + interception of rainfall from dense vegetation –> leaads to transpiration
    –> Creates convectional rainfall.

(two seasons, wet + dry –> occurs when rainforests are not exactly centred on the equator (slight differences in temp + thus rainfall))

Repetitive climate –> dry but misty mornings + late afternoon downpours and convectional
storms. (Always humid air)

(High biodiversity –> 250 species of trees per hectare