6. Fundamentals of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Flashcards
What is Catalytic hydrogenation?
This is a catalytic chemical reaction between H2 and another compound aiming at reducing or saturating organic compounds. Hydrogens are typically added in pairs to a molecule, often an alkene. Common catalysts include nickel, palladium, and platinum. The presence of a catalyst significantly reduces the temperature required for the process to take place.
What is Cis-trans isomerization?
This isomerism also called geometric isomerism or configurational isomerism concerns spatial arrangements with prefixes cis and trans used to identify the substitution of some atoms on one side and the other side of a plane.
Explain electron dislocation.
This occurs when all six carbons in a ring attract electrons (opposed to only one or two, which is the case in covalence bonds). This dislocation causes the structure to hold the electrons more tightly, making benzene a more stable and less reactive molecule compared to other unsaturated hydrocarbons.
What is organic chemistry?
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds.
What was the historical belief about organic compounds?
Organic compounds were thought to come only from living organisms.
Who disproved this idea and how (organic compounds)?
In 1828, Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea from inorganic compounds, proving that organic compounds can be created in a lab.
What three main concepts distinguish organic chemistry from inorganic chemistry?
Functional group classification
Naming process
How compounds react to form new substances
What are hydrocarbons?
Organic compounds made up of only carbon (C) and hydrogen (H).
What are the two main types of hydrocarbons?
Aliphatic hydrocarbons – Straight-chain or cyclic compounds (e.g., alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, cycloalkanes).
Aromatic hydrocarbons – Contain benzene rings with alternating single and double bonds.
What is hybridization in organic chemistry?
The mixing of atomic orbitals to explain molecular geometry and bonding.
How does hybridization explain the structure of methane (CH₄)?
Carbon undergoes sp³ hybridization, allowing it to form four covalent bonds with hydrogen.
What are alkanes?
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with only single bonds between carbon atoms.
What is the general formula of alkanes?
CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
Why are alkanes called “saturated hydrocarbons”?
They contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible.
What are the first two alkanes?
Methane (CH₄)
Ethane (C₂H₆)
What is a key property of alkanes?
They are not very reactive, but they are excellent fuels due to their exothermic combustion reactions.
What are structural isomers?
Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures.
What are cycloalkanes?
Alkanes that form a ring structure instead of a straight chain.
What is the general formula for cycloalkanes?
CₙH₂ₙ (two fewer hydrogen atoms than regular alkanes).
What is the smallest cycloalkane?
Cyclopropane (C₃H₆)
Where are cycloalkanes found?
In biological molecules like sugars and hormones.
What are alkenes?
Unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one double bond (C=C).
What is the general formula for alkenes?
CₙH₂ₙ
What is the simplest alkene?
Ethylene (C₂H₄) – Used in plastic production.
What is cis-trans isomerism?
A type of stereoisomerism where molecules with the same formula have different spatial arrangements due to restricted rotation around a double bond.
What are alkynes?
Unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond (C≡C).
What is the general formula for alkynes?
CₙH₂ₙ₋₂
What is the simplest alkyne?
Ethyne (Acetylene, C₂H₂) – Used in welding.
Are alkynes common in nature?
No, they are rare in nature but important in industry.
What is the parent compound of aromatic hydrocarbons?
Benzene (C₆H₆).
What makes benzene unique?
It has alternating single and double bonds that create a delocalized electron cloud, leading to high stability.
Why does benzene undergo substitution reactions instead of addition reactions?
Addition reactions would disrupt the resonance stability of the benzene ring.
What is electron delocalization?
The free movement of electrons in the benzene ring, contributing to its stability.
What are sigma (σ) bonds?
Single covalent bonds formed by head-on overlap of orbitals.
What are pi (π) bonds?
Weaker bonds formed by side-by-side overlap of orbitals in double and triple bonds.
Which is stronger: a sigma bond or a pi bond?
Sigma bonds are stronger because they allow for more effective orbital overlap.
How do sigma and pi bonds relate to bond stability?
Alkanes (single bonds) are more stable than alkenes (double bonds) and alkynes (triple bonds) due to having only sigma bonds.
Why are alkanes used as fuels?
They undergo combustion reactions, which release large amounts of energy.
What is halogenation?
A reaction where hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogens (e.g., chlorine, fluorine).
How are alkenes produced industrially?
Through catalytic cracking of larger hydrocarbons in crude oil.
Why is ethylene (C₂H₄) important in industry?
It is the main raw material for making plastics (e.g., polyethylene).
What makes acetylene (C₂H₂) useful for welding?
It has a high heat of combustion, making it a powerful fuel.
What are functional groups in organic chemistry?
✅ Functional groups are specific atom combinations that influence a compound’s reactivity and chemical behavior.
❓ Why are functional groups important?
✅ They determine reaction types, solubility, and physical properties of organic compounds.
❓ What is the functional group of alcohols?
✅ The hydroxyl group (-OH).
❓ How are alcohols related to water?
✅ They can be considered organic derivatives of water, where one hydrogen is replaced by an alkyl group.
❓ Are alcohols strong acids?
✅ No, alcohols are weak acids and only partially dissociate in water.
❓ What is the most common alcohol?
✅ Ethanol (ethyl alcohol, C₂H₅OH).
❓ How is ethanol produced?
Fermentation of sugars
Hydration of ethylene
❓ What are the uses of ethanol?
Antiseptics
Fuels
Alcoholic beverages
Antidote for methanol poisoning
Industrial processes (e.g., dyeing)
❓ Why is methanol dangerous?
✅ It is highly toxic and can cause nausea, blindness, or death.
❓ Why is methanol added to industrial ethanol?
✅ To prevent consumption (denaturation).
❓ What is the functional group of ethers?
✅ Two hydrocarbon groups (-R and -R’) connected by an oxygen atom (-O-).
❓ How are ethers related to water?
✅ Ethers are like water but with both hydrogens replaced by organic groups.
❓ How do ethers compare to alcohols?
✅ Less dense, less soluble, more volatile, and lower boiling points.
❓ What are common uses of ethers?
Solvents (for fats, rubber, and volatile oils)
Medical anesthetics
Pharmaceuticals (e.g., codeine, a morphine derivative)
❓ What is a common safety concern with ethers?
✅ Highly flammable, so they are often replaced by less flammable alternatives like nitrous oxide.
❓ How is diethyl ether produced?
✅ Condensation reaction of ethanol (via dehydration).
❓ How are aldehydes formed?
✅ By oxidation of alcohols.
❓ What is an example of an aldehyde?
✅ Acetaldehyde – a toxic intermediate in alcohol metabolism.
❓ What reaction can aldehydes undergo?
✅ Polymerization, where small molecules (monomers) join to form large macromolecules.
❓ How do ketones differ from aldehydes?
✅ Ketones have a carbonyl group (C=O) within the carbon chain, while aldehydes have it at the end of the chain.
❓ How are ketones produced?
✅ By oxidation of secondary alcohols.
❓ What are common uses of ketones?
Solvents
Manufacturing of explosives, textiles, and paints
Important in lipid metabolism
❓ Why do ketones accumulate in the body?
✅ In conditions like starvation or diabetes, leading to ketosis.
❓ How are carboxylic acids formed?
✅ By further oxidation of alcohols.
❓ What is a common example of a carboxylic acid?
✅ Acetic acid (vinegar component).
❓ How is acetic acid produced naturally?
✅ During wine fermentation, if oxygen levels are not controlled.
❓ What are amines?
✅ Organic compounds derived from ammonia (NH₃), where one or more hydrogens are replaced by organic groups.
❓ How are amines classified?
Primary (one hydrogen replaced)
Secondary (two hydrogens replaced)
Tertiary (three hydrogens replaced)
❓ How are amines further categorized?
Aliphatic amines (only aliphatic groups)
Aromatic amines (at least one aromatic group)
❓ What are the properties of amines?
✅ They behave as weak bases and form salts in the presence of acids.
❓ What are catecholamines?
✅ Amines that act as neurotransmitters, including dopamine, epinephrine, and histamine.
❓ How are esters formed?
✅ By a reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol (esterification).
❓ What is the general formula of esters?
✅ R-COO-R’, where R can be hydrogen, alkyl, or aromatic, but R’ can only be alkyl or aromatic.
❓ What is ester hydrolysis?
✅ A reversible reaction where an ester reacts with water to form an alcohol and a carboxylic acid.
❓ What is saponification?
✅ A reaction where an ester reacts with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form a soap (sodium salt).
❓ What is an important industrial application of saponification?
✅ Production of sodium stearate (soap).
❓ Why were chemical nomenclature rules created?
✅ To establish a universal system for naming chemical compounds, minimizing miscommunication.
❓ Who created the most widely accepted nomenclature rules?
✅ The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).
❓ Are there common names that do not follow IUPAC rules?
✅ Yes, for example, citric acid.
❓ What is the first step in naming hydrocarbons?
✅ Identify the longest continuous carbon chain (parent name).
❓ How do you determine the longest chain in complex cases?
✅ Use trial and error to find the chain with the most carbons.
❓ What are the rules for choosing the longest chain when there are multiple possibilities?
Follow these priorities in order:
- Greatest number of branches
- Lowest possible prefix numbers for branches
- Greatest number of carbons in the smallest branch
- Least branched structure
❓ How are carbon atoms numbered in alkanes?
✅ Start numbering from the end closest to the first branch.
❓ How are alkyl groups added to the name?
List them before the parent chain
Include their position number
Use prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-) for multiple identical groups
Separate numbers with commas and words with hyphens
❓ How are branched groups listed?
✅ In alphabetical order, ignoring prefixes (e.g., ethyl before dimethyl).
❓ How do you name alkenes and alkynes?
✅ Similar to alkanes, but you must specify double or triple bond locations.
❓ How are multiple double or triple bonds indicated?
✅ Use di-, tri-, or tetra- before “ene” or “yne” (e.g., butadiene).
❓ Where do you place numbers for double or triple bonds?
✅ Before the parent name, indicating the first carbon of the bond.
❓ How are monosubstituted benzenes named?
✅ The substituent automatically gets position 1, so no number is needed.
❓ How are positions assigned in disubstituted benzenes?
✅ Use:
Ortho- (o-) for adjacent (1,2) positions
Meta- (m-) for middle (1,3) positions
Para- (p-) for opposite (1,4) positions
❓ Can aromatic compounds have multiple substituents?
✅ Yes, but positions must be explicitly numbered.
❓ What is a monofunctional compound?
✅ A compound with only one type of functional group.
❓ How do functional groups affect naming?
✅ The functional group determines the suffix (e.g., -ol for alcohols, -one for ketones).
❓ How do you indicate carbon positions in functional groups?
✅ Use numbers, following the same rules as for hydrocarbons.
❓ Why is naming polyfunctional compounds difficult?
✅ They have multiple functional groups, making nomenclature complex even for experts.
What is epoxidation?
This is a chemical reaction characterized by converting a double bond into epoxides. Epoxides are cyclic ethers in which the ether forms a three-atom ring involving two carbons and one oxygen.
❓ What is the goal of studying organic reactions?
✅ To identify patterns, relationships, and trends that help predict reaction outcomes.
❓ How does three-dimensional (3D) notation help in organic chemistry?
✅ It visualizes bonds spatially, aiding in reaction understanding.
❓ What happens when a reagent (X-Y) is added to an alkene or alkyne?
✅ The double or triple bond breaks, and the reagent attaches to the carbon atoms.
❓ What rule explains the addition pattern in these reactions?
✅ Markovnikov’s Rule:
Electron-rich components attach to the carbon with more substituents.
Electron-deficient components attach to the carbon with fewer substituents.
❓ How does the addition of water (H₂O) to an alkene relate to Markovnikov’s rule?
✅ Water acts like HX, leading to the formation of alcohols instead of alkyl halides.
❓ How can alkenes be tested for double or triple bonds?
✅ By adding halogens (Br₂ or Cl₂):
If the reddish color disappears, the compound is unsaturated.
❓ What is hydrogenation?
✅ The addition of hydrogen (H₂) to an alkene or alkyne, converting it into an alkane.
❓ What does hydrogenation do to the oxidation state of carbon?
✅ It reduces carbon to its lowest oxidation state (-4).
❓ What catalysts are commonly used in hydrogenation?
✅ Palladium (Pd) and Platinum (Pt) oxides.
❓ Why are oxidation reactions more complex than reductions?
✅ They produce various intermediates or byproducts depending on catalysts and conditions.
❓ What is the final oxidation state of an organic molecule?
✅ It forms an acid, incorporating the highest amount of oxygen.
❓ What is epoxidation?
✅ A reaction where an alkene reacts to form an epoxide, later hydrolyzed into ethylene glycol (used in antifreeze).
❓ What role does potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) play in oxidation?
✅ It oxidizes compounds into alcohols, ketones, or acids, depending on the reaction medium (acidic or basic).
❓ What is Baeyer’s Test for Unsaturation?
✅ A test using Baeyer’s reagent (KMnO₄) to distinguish cyclopropane from cyclopropene.
❓ What are polymers?
✅ Large molecules made from repeating monomers.
❓ What are some common synthetic polymers?
✅ Polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), nylon, TPU, and PTFE.
❓ What are natural (biological) polymers?
✅
Cellulose (sugar monomers)
Proteins (amino acids)
DNA (nucleotide monomers)
❓ How are synthetic polymers made?
✅ By polymerizing alkenes using a catalyst.
❓ What are the three steps of polymerization?
✅
Initiation – A free radical is created (e.g., benzoyl peroxide).
Propagation – More monomers are added to the radical.
Termination – The radical is consumed, stopping polymer growth.
❓ What symbol is used to represent radical electron movement?
✅ Half-arrow (fishhook) notation.
