52.5 Cardiovascular Regulation in Critical Illness Flashcards
What are the two main causes of cardiovascular failure?
- Heart failure
- Shock
What are the four main types of cardiovascular shock?
- Hypovolaemic
- Cardiogenic
- Distributive (vasodilatory)
- Obstructive
What is hypovolemic shock and what are the causes?
[IMPORTANT]
- Lack of perfusion of tissues caused by loss of fluid volume.
- Causes:
- Hemorrhage
- Diarrhoea/vomiting
- Third space losses (pancreatitis, burns) -> Fluid losses into spaces that are not visible
What is cardiogenic shock and what are the causes?
[IMPORTANT]
- Lack of perfusion of tissues caused by decreased effectiveness of heart pumping.
- Causes:
- Reduced stroke volume in MI or myocarditis
- Bradycardia
- Tachyarrhythmias (when the heart rate is too fast for the heart to refill between strokes)
- Acute valve rupture
What is distributive shock and what are the causes?
[IMPORTANT]
- Lack of perfusion of tissues caused by systemic vasodilation.
- Causes:
- Sepsis
- Anaphylaxis
- Neurogenic causes (epidural anaesthesia/spinal injury)
What is obstructive shock and what are the causes?
[IMPORTANT]
- Lack of perfusion of tissues caused by mechanical obstruction of inflow or outflow from the heart.
- Causes:
- Cardiac tamponade
- Pulmonary embolism
- IVC obstruction (e.g. thrombus)
Describe the symptoms of hypovolaemic shock on various organs.
- Type II Myocardial infarction -> Due to hypoperfusion, anaemia, increased coagulability and increased metabolic demand of the heart as it tries to compensate.
- Acute tubular necrosis
- Multi-organ failure
Shock is a downwards spiral since the effects and some compensatory mechanisms reinforce the problem of decreased oxygen delivery to tissues.
Summarise the main treatments for hypovolaemic shock.
[IMPORTANT]
- Treat underlying cause
- Fluid resuscitation
- Colloid or crystalloid solution is usually sufficient if mild shock
- Blood infusion required if severe shock
- Major haemorrhage protocols (used if more than 50% blood lost in 3 hours)
- Guided administration of RBC, plasma and platelets in the correct ratio
- Bleeding control techniques
What is the difficulty with surgical intervention for hypovolaemic shock?
- Surgery requires general anaesthesia, which tends to depress the cardiovascular system, exacerbating the shock.
- Therefore, the patient usually needs to be stabilised before surgical intervention.
What is the body’s response to cardiogenic shock?
- The response is similar to in hypovolaemic shock, since the arterial baroreceptors detect the low pressure and there is the baroreflex
- The RAAS and sympathetic nervous system lead to vasoconstriction, fluid retention (at the kidneys) and cardiovascular remodelling in the long term
- This helps to increase cardiac output due to increased cardiac filling, but it causes the heart to have to work more against the increased fluid, which can exacerbate the problem
- However, natriuretic peptide release is triggered by stretch of the atria -> This leads to countering of the damaging effects of the shock
What are the clinical signs of cardiogenic shock?
- Left sided -> Pulmonary oedema
- Right sided (or both sides) -> Jugular vein distension
Summarise the approach to treating cardiogenic shock.
- Treat underlying cause (frequently a heart attack)
- Improve oxygenation
- High flow O2
- Continuous positive airway pressure
- Invasive ventilation via endotracheal tube
- Either:
- Reduce fluid retention if the patient is ‘falling off’ the Frank-Starling curve -> Increases cardiac output
- Loop diuretics (furosemide)
- Infuse fluid if hypovolaemic -> Increases preload and therefore cardiac output
- Reduce fluid retention if the patient is ‘falling off’ the Frank-Starling curve -> Increases cardiac output
- Either:
- Reduce afterload (if there is sufficient blood pressure to sacrifice) -> This increases cardiac output by shifting the Frank-Starling curve upwards
- Nitrates (as blood pressure allows)
- ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers
- Use vasoconstrictors (if hypotensive) -> This maintains pressure
- Reduce afterload (if there is sufficient blood pressure to sacrifice) -> This increases cardiac output by shifting the Frank-Starling curve upwards
- Improve cardiac contractility
- Inotropes: Dobutamine, Milrinone, Levosimendan
- Mechanical haemodynamic support (i.e. mechanically supporting the heart)
- Intra-aortic balloon pump use
- Others: Impella, Tandem Heart, Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO)
(CHECK when fluid infusion/retention and vasoconstriction/dilation are used)
Summarise the contradictory treatments for cardiogenic shock. Explain why each may be used.
Fluid management:
- Fluid infusion
- Most of the fluid enters the venous circulation and therefore increases preload
- This increases cardiac output
- Reducing fluid retention (loop diuretics)
- This is used if the patient is ‘falling off’ the Frank-Starling curve
- In these situation, further increases in preload decrease cardiac output because the heart cannot mobilise all of the blood supplied to it
Vascular control:
- Vasodilation (nitrates, ACE inhibitors, ARBs)
- Reduces afterload, which increases cardiac output by shifting the Frank-Starling curve upwards
- This is useful, but can only be done if there is sufficient arterial blood pressure to sacrifice
- Vasoconstriction
- Increases arterial blood pressure
- But also increases afterload, which reduces cardiac output
Summarise how you can think of the shock and its treatments using Guyton diagrams.
[CONCEPTUALLY USEFUL]
- Fluid infusion (which mostly enters the veins) or venous vasoconstriction (i.e. decreased capacitance) lead to a shift to the right of the Pmcf, which consequently shifts the venous and arterial lines
- Arterial vasoconstriction leads to increases in TPR, which decreases the gradient of the arterial and venous lines (no change in Pmcf though)
- When both happen at the same time (i.e. both arterial and venous vasoconstriction), the two effects are combined and so the lines shift to the right but the gradient decreases
- Decreased afterload (e.g. due to arterial vasodilation) shifts the Frank-Starling curve upwards
Describe the diagnosis and treatment for distributive shock caused by sepsis.
Diagnosis:
- ABCDE
- Blood cultures
Treatments:
- Oxygen supply
- IV fluids
- Broad spectrum antibiotics
- Vasopressors
- Steroid -> Support vasoconstriction, but weaken the immune response against the infection
- Manage coagulation
Describe the treatment for distributive shock caused by anaphylaxis.
- Remove trigger
- Lay down
- Adrenaline (“epipen”)
- Oxygen delivery
- IV fluids
- Chlorphenirame
- Hydrocortisone
What are the symptoms of chronic ischaemic heart failure?
[IMPORTANT]
- Tiredness and lethargy (caused by reduced perfusion of tissues, and by acidaemia)
- Breathlessness, particularly on exertion and (in the case of left ventricular failure) on lying flat
- In the case of right ventricular failure, dependent oedema (i.e., usually ankle oedema)
What are some clinical signs of heart failure?
[IMPORTANT]
- Reduced systemic arterial pressure
- Increased heart rate
- Apex beat displaced to the left (left ventricular dilation)
- Pulmonary oedema
And if there is right ventricular failure:
- Raised jugular venous pressure
- Dependent oedema (venous congestion in dependent areas, plus reduced oncotic pressure as resulting from fluid retention by the kidneys)
Summarise in general what causes chronic ischaemic heart failure.
- Chronic ischaemic failure may occur in isolation, or may be an end point of other diseases, such as hypertension.
- When it apparently occurs in isolation, the underlying pathology is usually some form of obstruction to the blood supply of the myocardium.