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A2 Biology > 5.1.2 > Flashcards

5.1.2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is excretion?

A

The removal of the waste products of metabolism from the body

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2
Q

What are the main metabolic waste products in mammals?

A

Carbon dioxide, bile pigments, nitrogenous waste products (urea)

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3
Q

How is the liver organised?

A

The liver is organised into lobes, which are split into lobules

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4
Q

What is a lobule?

A

A basic structural and functional unit of the liver

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5
Q

What vessel is in the centre of a lobule?

A

The hepatic venule

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6
Q

What is the function of the hepatic artery?

A

Bring oxygenated blood to the liver

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7
Q

What is the hepatic portal vein?

A

It carries deoxygenated blood with nutrients to the liver

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8
Q

What are caniculi?

A

Spaces that connect to the bile duct, and where the bile is drained into

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9
Q

What are liver cells called?

A

Hepatocytes

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10
Q

What are Kupffer cells?

A

Resident macrophages, killing and removing pathogens

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11
Q

What is a sinusoid?

A

A space where the blood from the hepatic artery and from the hepatic portal vein mix, increasing the oxygen content for the hepatocytes to work effectively

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12
Q

What are the functions of the hepatocytes?

A

Create bile (for emulsification of lipids), convert glucose into glycogen, deamination (ornithine cycle), and detoxification

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13
Q

How does detoxification work?

A

Alcohol dehydrogenase converts ethanol into ethanal, and then into ethanoate, which can be then converted into a fatty acid, which is useful for storage or respiration

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14
Q

Why is deamination required?

A

The body cannot store proteins and amino acids

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15
Q

How does deamination work?

A

The amino acids have their amine groups removed, converting it first into ammonia and then into urea

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16
Q

Describe the ornithine cycle

A

The amino acid ornithine is present at the start, and then one ammonia and one CO2 is added, while one H2O is removed. This forms citrulline. Then, NH3 is added again, and H2O is removed again, forming arginine. Then, H2O is removed from arginine, as well as urea, reforming ornithine.

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17
Q

What can the deaminated section of the amino acid be used for?

A

It is converted into pyruvate which is used in respiration

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18
Q

What are the three main sections of the kidney?

A

The cortex
The medulla
The pelvis

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19
Q

Describe the cortex of the kidney

A

The dark outer layer. This is where the filtering of the blood takes place and it has a very dense capillary network carrying the blood from the renal artery to the nephrons

20
Q

Describe the renal medulla

A

The lighter coloured area containing the tubules of the nephrons that forms the pyramids of the kidney and the collecting ducts

21
Q

Describe the renal pelvis

A

The central chamber where the urine collects before passing out down the ureter

22
Q

What is a nephron?

A

A basic functional unit and structural unit of the kidney

23
Q

Describe the structure of the start of the nephron

A

Blood from the renal artery enters he afferent arteriole, which feeds into the glomerulus and the Bowman’s capsule, before leaving through the efferent arteriole. The efferent arteriole is much thinner than the afferent arteriole, creating a filtration pressure inside the glomerulus.

24
Q

What does the Bowman’s capsule lead into?

A

The proximal convoluted tubule. The filtrate from the Bowman’s capsule enters the PCT. Then, the PCT feeds into the loop of Henle.

25
Q

How does loop of Henle length vary?

A

Animals which live in dry, arid conditions have longer loops of Henle, as it allows for more water to be reabsorbed.

26
Q

What follows the loop of Henle?

A

The distal convoluted tubule, and then the collecting duct

27
Q

What is the glomerulus?

A

A tangle of capillaries, and the capillary walls have gaps, allowing substances to leave. it also has a basement membrane

28
Q

Describe the basement membrane

A

The basement membrane acts as the first filter of the contents of the blood. Its gaps are small so RBCs, WBCs, and plasma proteins are all unable to cross the membrane. However, small molecules are able to cross.

29
Q

Describe the basement membrane

A

The basement membrane acts as the first filter of the contents of the blood. Its gaps are small so RBCs, WBCs, and plasma proteins are all unable to cross the membrane. However, small molecules are able to cross.

30
Q

Describe the wall of the Bowman’s capsule

A

The wall contain specialised cells calls podocytes, which act as a second filter. The podocytes have extensions called pedicels, which form slits

31
Q

What Mr of molecules is the maximum that is able to make it through ultrafiltration?

A

69000

32
Q

What happens in the proximal convoluted tubule?

A

Most of the reabsorption takes place. All of the glucose is actively transported out, as well as all of the amino acids, hormones and vitamins. Some Na+ is also actively transported out, resulting in the osmosis of some water out and into the tissue fluid. For this reason, some Cl- ions then also diffuse into the tissue fluid

33
Q

What happens in the loop of Henle?

A

In the descending limb, water exits via osmosis. Going down the descending limb, the concentration of salts increases. When the bottom of the loop of Henle is reached, the solution inside is hypertonic. Going up the ascending limb, salts diffuse out of the loop of Henle, until the concentration becomes isotonic. Beyond this point, active transport of the salt ions take place.

34
Q

What happens in the DCT?

A

If required by the body, salts and water are reabsorbed.

35
Q

What happens in the colleting duct?

A

Osmoregulation takes place, where ADH plays a major role in the reabsorption of water if required. Going down the collecting

36
Q

What are the remains from selective reabsorption?

A

Urine, which contains urea, excess salts, and excess water

37
Q

What are the two ways in which kidney failure can be treated?

A

Dialysis and transplant

38
Q

What are the two types of dialysis?

A

Haemodialysis (machine) and peritoneal dialysis (no machine)

39
Q

Describe haemodialysis

A

Blood leaves the patient’s body from an artery and flows into the dialysis machine where it flows between the partially permeable dialysis membranes. The membranes mimic the action of the basement membrane of the Bowman’s capsule. The dialysis contains the normal concentrations of most components of the blood, but does not contain any urea

40
Q

What process does haemodialysis rely on?

A

Diffusion, as active transport cannot take place outside the body

41
Q

What are the difficulties of haemodialysis?

A

Patients have to remain attached to a dialysis machine several times a week for long hours. They must also balance their diets carefully.

42
Q

What is peritoneal dialysis?

A

Dialysis inside the body, using the natural dialysis membranes formed by the lining of the abdomen. The patient can more or less continue with their normal life, outside of their treatments

43
Q

What is the main problem with treating kidney failure by transplant?

A

There is a chance of rejection, which could destroy the new kidney.

44
Q

How is the risk of rejection reduced?

A

The match between the antigens of the donor and recipient is made as close as possible. The patient is also given immunosuppressant drugs for the rest of their lives

45
Q

What is the disadvantage of taking immunosuppressant drugs?

A

They prevent the patient from responding effectively to infectious diseases

46
Q

How are urine samples used in pregnancy tests?

A

The embryo implants in the uterus, 6 days after conception. The side of the developing placenta produces hCG. Some of this hormone is found in the blood and urine. So, for a pregnancy test to work, the wick is soaked in the first urine passed in the morning. The test contains monoclonal antibodies that have very small coloured beads attached to them. They will only bind to hCG. If the woman is pregnant, the hCG in her urine binds to the mobile monoclonal antibodies forming a complex. If the woman is pregnant, two coloured lines appear

47
Q

How is urine used to test for anabolic steroids?

A

By testing the urine using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, scientists can determine if anabolic steroids have been used.

A2 Biology (14 decks)

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