5 - The mitotic cell cycle Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a chromatid?

A

One of 2 identical copies of a replicated chromosome, made up of a very long, condensed DNA molecule (made up of a series of genes)

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2
Q

What is the centromere?

A

The region of a chromosome that holds sister chromatids together. Serves as an attachment point for spindle microtubules during cell division.

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3
Q

What are chromosomes made up of?

A

Chromatin

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4
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

A structure within a cell containing DNA that has been packaged and organised into a more compact form. (Humans have 46 chromosomes, grouped into 23 pairs.)

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5
Q

What are sister chromatids?

A

2 (identical) chromatids that make up the double structure of a chromosome. joined at centromere.

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6
Q

What is chromatin?

A

The tightly coiled combination of DNA and histone proteins

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7
Q

What are histones?

A

Proteins which DNA is tightly wound around in order to condense DNA so it fits into the nucleus + is more space efficient.

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8
Q

What are telomeres? Refer to their structure.

A

Protective structures at the ends of the chromatids in chromosomes made of non-coding DNA (does not contain genes) that is made up of short base sequences that are repeated many times. One strand is rich in guanine and the other is rich in cytosine.

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9
Q

State the components that make up a chromosome.

A

DNA, histone proteins, sister chromatids, centromere, telomeres

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10
Q

What is the purpose of mitosis?

A

Produce 2 genetically identical daughter cells for:
Growth,
Cell replacement/tissue repair,
Asexual reproduction.

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11
Q

Does the cell continue growing during the nuclear division (mitosis) phase of the cell cycle?

A

No.

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12
Q

What does the S stand for in S phase?

A

Synthesis.

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13
Q

What does the G stand for in G1 and G2 phase?

A

Gap

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14
Q

How is the movement between phases of the cell cycle triggered?

A

Chemical signals called cyclins.

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15
Q

What happens during cytokinesis?

A

1 - Cell membrane cleavage furrow forms,
2 - Cell divides and one nucleus moves into each cell → two genetically identical daughter cells
* In animals - cytoplasm constricts between the 2 nuclei
* In plants - a new cell wall is formed.

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16
Q

Outline what happens during telophase

A

1 - Chromosomes decondense and can no longer be observed,
2 - New nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes → two new nuclei, each with one copy of each chromosome

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17
Q

Outline what happens during anaphase

A

(Requires energy from ATP hydrolysis)
1 - Spindle fibres contract, centromeres divide,
2 - Sister chromatids separate into two distinct chromosomes and pulled to opposite poles of the cell (appear as ‘V’ shapes facing each other),
3 - spindle fibres break down.

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18
Q

Outline what happens during metaphase

A

Sister chromatids line up at cell equator attached to the mitotic spindle by their centromeres

19
Q

Outline what happens during prophase

A

1 - chromosomes condense and become visible,
2 - nuclear membrane disappears,
3 - centrioles move apart,
4 - spindle fibres form.

20
Q

Name the stages of mitosis

A

1 - Prophase,
2 - Metaphase,
3 - Anaphase,
4 - Telophase.

21
Q

Outline what happens during interphase

A

G1 - Cell makes RNA, enzymes + other proteins required for growth
S - DNA replicates → creates 2 identical sister chromatids
G2 - Newly synthesised DNA is checked + errors are usually repaired. organelles divide. cell continues growing. other preparations made (e.g. production of tubulin protein → makes microtubules for mitotic spindle)

22
Q

Outline the stages of the cell cycle

A

1 - interphase.
2 - Nuclear division (mitosis or meiosis)
3 - cytokinesis (cell division)

23
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

Regulated cycle of division with intermediate periods of growth

24
Q

What is telomerase?

A

An enzyme found in most cells that adds additional bases at each end to elongate telomeres.
Not found in specialised cells → ageing.

25
Q

Why are telomeres needed?

A

The copying enzyme responsible for DNA replication is unable to run to the end of the DNA molecule - stops short of the end. If telomeres weren’t there, important genes would be lost.

26
Q

State the role of telomeres

A

Act as a ‘buffer’ region of non-essential DNA to ensure that no genes are lost during cell division - allows for continued replication of a cell.

27
Q

Name of the process in which stem cells develop into specialised cells

A

Differentiation

28
Q

Word for the ability of a stem cell to differentiate into more specialised cell types

A

Potency

29
Q

Suggest some uses of stem cells

A

1 - Repair of damaged tissue,
2 - drug testing on artificially grown tissues,
3 - treating neurological diseases e.g. Alzheimer’s or Parkinson’s,
4 - researching developmental biology e.g. formation of organs/embryos

30
Q

Where can stem cells be found in humans?

A

Bone marrow, skin, gut, heart, brain.

31
Q

Name and define the four types of stem cell

A

1 - Totipotent - can develop into any cell type including the placenta and embryo.
2 - Pluripotent - can develop into any cell type excluding the placenta and embryo.
3 - Multipotent - can only develop into a few different cell types.
4 - Unipotent - can only develop into one type of cell.

32
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Cells that can divide (by mitosis) an unlimited number of times. Each new cell has potential to remain a stem cell or differentiate into a specialised cell.

33
Q

Why do cancerous cell continue to divide?

A

They don’t respond to signals from other cells.

34
Q

How do oncogenes arise?

A

From carcinogens (agents which cause cancer)

35
Q

Why is metastasis dangerous?

A

Can be very difficult to detect, locate and remove secondary cancers.

36
Q

What is metastasis?

A

Malignant tumour cells can break off the tumour and travel through the blood and/or lymphatic system → invade other tissues → form secondary growths in other parts of the body. Metastasis is the spread of cancer by this movement.

37
Q

How do malignant tumours spread through the body?

A

Malignant tumour cells can break off the tumour and travel through the blood and/or lymphatic system → invade other tissues → form secondary growths in other parts of the body

38
Q

How can malignant tumours interfere with the organ/tissue where they started to grow? (example)

A

Example - could block the intestines, lungs or blood vessels.

39
Q

What is a malignant tumour?

A

A tumour which spreads through the body, invading and destroying other tissues — cause cancer.

40
Q

What is a benign tumour?

A

A tumour which does not spread from its original site — does not cause cancer. E.g. warts

41
Q

What do most mutations result in?

A

Early cell death or cell is destroyed by body’s immune system or formation of cancer.

42
Q

What is an oncogene?

A

A mutated gene which causes cancer

43
Q

What is a tumour?

A

An irregular mass of cells

44
Q

Why is the regulation of the cell cycle important?

A

Irregular growth of cells where growth or repair is not required can result in the formation of cell masses (tumours). This may lead to cancer.