5. Materials Flashcards
1
Q
What is density defined as?
A
A substance’s mass per unit volume
2
Q
the equation for density is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?
ρ = m/v
A
ρ = m/v
ρ = density
m=mass (kg)
v= volume (m cubed)
3
Q
Method for finding density of a regular solid?
A
- ruler - measure width, length and height
- top-pan balance - measure mass
- use ρ = m/v
4
Q
Method for finding density of an irregular solid?
A
- top-pan balance - measure mass
- use a eureka can to measure water displaced by object
- volume of water = volume of object
- use ρ = m/v
5
Q
What type of force is acting when a spring is squashed?
A
Compressive
6
Q
What type of force is acting when a spring is lengthened?
A
Tensile
7
Q
What is Hooke’s law?
A
The force needed to stretch a string is proportional to the extension of the spring from its natural length, provided the elastic limit isn’t exceeded
8
Q
the equation for Hooke’s law is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?
F = kΔL
A
F = kΔL F= force (N) k= spring constant ( m per N) ΔL = change in length
9
Q
What does it mean for the stiffness of the spring when spring constant is larger?
A
It is a stiffer spring
10
Q
What happens to a spring when it is stretched beyond its elastic limit?
A
It doesn’t regain its initial length when the force applied is removed
11
Q
How can the spring constant of springs ‘in parallel’ be calculated?
A
Multiply the spring constants together of the original springs
12
Q
How can the spring constant of two springs ‘in series’ be calculated?
A
1/kₜₒₜₐₗ = 1/kₑₐ𝒸ₕ x number of springs
13
Q
What is the area underneath a force-extension graph equal to?
A
Strain energy (as work done = force x distance)
14
Q
One of the equations for strain energy is foudn on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for? what is the other equation?
E=1/2 F△L
A
E=1/2 FΔL
E = 1/2kΔL²
E= energy joules F= force(N) k= spring constant ΔL= change in length
15
Q
When does the equation Eₑ = 1/2kΔL² apply?
A
Only if the spring obeys Hooke’s law
16
Q
In materials, what does the stiffness depend on?
A
Material, length and cross-sectional area
17
Q
What is the definition of stress on a material?
A
The force acting per unit cross sectional area
18
Q
The equation for tensile stress is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?
tensile stress= F/A
A
tensile stress= Force / cross sectional area (tensile stress= F/A)
19
Q
What is stress measured in?
A
pascals (Pa)
20
Q
What is the breaking stress of a material?
A
The maximum stress it can withstand without fracture
21
Q
What can breaking stress also be referred to as?
A
Ultimate tensile stress
22
Q
What happens when materials get a thinner section when they are stretched?
A
They break here as stress is increased here
23
Q
What is strain defined as?
A
The extension produced per unit length
24
Q
The equation for strain is found on the data sheet. what do the symbols stand for?
tensile strain= △L/L
A
tensile strain= Extension / length
25
What is strain measured in?
Has no units
26
How can the two separate equations for stress and strain be simplified?
* σ=F/A divided by ε=x/l
* F/A x L/ΔL = FL/AΔL
* F/ΔL is spring constant
* so E = kL/A
27
On a stress-strain graph showing a stiff and a flexible material, which material has the line with the steepest gradient?
The stiff material
28
What are materials that permanently deform described as?
Plastic
29
What are materials that return to their original shape after the stretching force is removed called?
Elastic
30
What two words can plastic materials also be described as?
* ductile - can be drawn into wires
| * malleable - they can be hammered into sheets
31
Describe the force-extension graph of a metal wire.
* loading - the line starts straight, and curves as it surpasses the limit of elasticity
* unloading - the line doesn't come back along the same line as when loading
* difference between loading and unloading lines = permanent extension of wire
32
Describe the force-extension graph of a rubber band.
* loading - the line is curved
* unloading - the line is curved, but doesn't follow the same curve as the loading line
* unloading line finishes at the origin - rubber returns to its original shape
33
What is the opposite of a tough material?
A brittle material
34
What happens when you try to deform a malleable material e.g. lead?
It deforms plastically - gives way gradually, absorbing a lot of energy before it snaps
35
Do brittle materials deform plastically?
No
36
Do brittle materials absorb much energy before they break?
No, unlike plastic materials
37
What are force-extension graphs used for, vs stress-strain graphs?
* force-extension → usually for objects e.g. particular spring
* stress-strain → usually for materials (of any size)
38
What does the gradient represent on force-extension and stress-strain graphs?
* force-extension → spring constant (Nm⁻¹)
| * stress-strain → Young Modulus, E (Nm⁻² or Pa)
39
What is the Young Modulus measured in?
Nm⁻² or Pa
40
What does the area represent on force-extension and stress-strain graphs?
* force-extension → work done (1/2kΔL²) in J
| * stress-strain → work done per unit length (W/V) in Jm⁻³
41
What is work done per unit length measured in?
Jm⁻³
42
On a force-extension graph, what does it mean if the area of the unloading graph is smaller than that of the loading graph?
Some energy has been transferred
43
What is the reason for energy transference on a force-extension graph?
Some energy stored in the object (e.g. rubber band) becomes the internal energy of the molecules when the rubber band unstretches
44
On a force-extension graph, what does the area between the loading and unloading curve represent?
Difference between energy stored in the object when it is stretched and the useful energy recovered from it when it is unstretched
45
Brief explanation of experiment to find the Young Modulus of a wire?
* stress → wire with mass attached - measure mass using top-pan balance and use W=mg. measure diameter of wire using micrometer, then calculate area
* then stress = F/A
* strain → measure extension by measuring distance marker moves from original position, and length of wire. calculate strain
* vary mass for range of values - plot stress-strain graph
46
How to improve accuracy in the experiment to calculate the Young Modulus of a wire?
* use long thin wire and heavier weights → greater Δl so smaller % uncertainty
* measure diameter accurately using micrometer
* measure wire by holding ruler as close to the wire as possible
47
In an experiment to calculate the Young Modulus of a wire, how can kinks in the wire be avoided?
Weights are added at the beginning, before length measured
48
In an experiment to calculate the Young Modulus of a wire, how can we make sure there is no thermal expansion?
By comparing the test wire to a control wire
49
What is the elastic limit?
The point beyond which a wire will not return to its original length after weight has been added and then remove
50
What is density?
The mass of a material per unit volume.
51
What is the equation for density?
Density (kg/m³) = Mass (kg) / Volume (m³)
p = m / v
52
What is the symbol for density?
ρ - rho (looks like a ‘p’)
53
What are the units for density?
g/cm³ or kg/m³
54
Convert 1 g/cm³ to kg/m³.
1 g/cm³ = 1000 kg/m³
55
Is density affected by size or shape?
No, just the material.
56
What determines whether a material floats?
* The relative average densities.
| * If a solid has a lower density than a fluid, it will float in the fluid
57
What is the density of water?
1 g/cm³ (which is 1000 kg/m³)
58
What is Hooke’s law?
* The extension of a stretched object (Δl) is proportional to the load (F) until the limit of proportionality.
* F = k x Δl
59
What is the equation for Hooke’s law?
Force (N) = Stiffness constant (N/m) x Extension (m)
F = k x Δl
60
What are the units for the spring constant, k?
N/m
61
What is k?
* The stiffness constant for a material being stretched
| * With springs, it is usually called the spring constant
62
Describe the forces acting on a metal wire being stretched by a load.
* Load pulls down on the end of the wire with force F
* Support pulls up on the top of the wire with an equal reaction force R
* F = R
63
Does Hooke’s law only work for tensile forces?
No, it also works for compressive forces.
64
What things obey Hooke’s law?
• Springs
• Metal wires
• Most other materials
(Up to a point!)
65
What types of forces does Hooke’s law work for?
* Tensile (stretching)
| * Compressive
66
Does Hooke’s law involve just one force?
* No, there must be two equal and opposite forces at the ends of the object.
* They can be tensile of compressive.
67
Is the value of k the same for tensile force as it is for compressive forces?
And it what materials?
* In springs - the same.
| * In other materials (and some springs) - not always because some can't compress
68
A material will only deform (stretch, bend, twist, etc.) there are ...... acting on it
...there’s a pair of opposite forces acting on it.
69
Describe the forces acting on a fixed spring that has a compressive force acting on the base.
* The compressive force, F, pushes up onto the spring
* The support exerts an equal and opposite reaction force, R, down onto the spring
* F = R
70
How is Hooke’s law illustrated on a graph?
* Graph of force (y) against extension (x)
| * Gradient of straight part is the value of k
71
When does Hooke's law not work?
It stops working when the force is great enough (the limit of proportionality).
72
Why is a force-extension graph plotted with extension on the x axis?
So that the gradient gives k.
73
Describe the force-extension graph for a typical metal wire.
* Straight-line from origin up to the limit of proportionality (P)
* Line curves slightly towards x-axis up to elastic limit (E)
* Line curves more towards the x-axis
74
What is the limit of proportionality on a force-extension graph?
* The point at which the line starts to curve
| * Hooke’s law works up to this point
75
How do you investigate extension?
Support the object being tested (the spring) from above with a clamp.
Measure it's original length with a ruler - use a set square to make sure the ruler is parallel with the stand.
Add weights one at a time to the end of the object (the spring).
After each weight is added find new length then do: New length - original length = extension.
Make sure you can add a good number of weights before the object breaks to get a good picture of force-extension.
Plot a graph of load-extension.
76
How is Hooke’s law illustrated on a graph?
* Graph of force (y) against extension (x)
| * Gradient of straight part is the value of k
77
What is the elastic limit on a force-extension graph?
The force beyond which the material will be permanently stretched and will no longer return to its original shape.
78
Does rubber obey Hooke’s law?
| Elaborate
Yes, but only for really small extensions.
79
When else does Hooke's law apply for small extensions?
Wire
80
On a force-extension graph for a metal wire, where are P (limit of proportionality) and E (elastic limit)?
* P -> Where the line starts curving
| * E -> After P
81
What are the two types of stretching?
* Elastic
| * Plastic
82
What is elastic deformation?
When a material returns to its original shape and size once the forces are removed.
83
How can you tell this material is elastic
It returns to its original length after extension (0,0)
84
What do X and Y represent?
85
What is plastic deformation?
When a material is stretched so that it cannot return to its original shape or size and is permanently deformed.
86
Describe elastic deformation in terms of atoms.
1) Under tension, the atoms in the material are pulled apart.
2) They move short distances relative to their equilibrium positions without changing positions in the material.
3) Once load is removed, atoms can return to their equilibrium distances apart.
87
Describe plastic deformation in terms of atoms.
1) Certain atoms move position relative to one another.
| 2) When the load is removed, the atoms don’t return to their equilibrium position.
88
When do elastic and plastic deformation happen?
* Elastic deformation -> Below the elastic limit
| * Plastic deformation -> Beyond the elastic limit
89
Describe the energy transfers when an object is deformed elastically.
* All the work done to stretch is stored as elastic strain energy
* When the force is removed, the stored energy is transferred to other forms (e.g. kinetic energy)
90
Describe the energy transfers when an object is stretched plastically.
* The work done to separate atoms is not stored
| * It is mostly dissipated (e.g. as heat)
91
What type of deformation occurs in crumple zones in cars and why?
* Plastic
| * Energy goes into changing the shape of the vehicle’s body -> Less is transferred to the people inside
92
What is a tensile force?
A stretching force.
93
What is tensile stress?
The force applied per unit cross-sectional area of a material.
94
What is the equation for stress?
Stress (N/m²) = Force (N) / Cross-sectional area (m²)
Stress = F / A
95
What are the units for stress?
N/m² or Pa
96
What is tensile strain?
The change in length of a material divided by the original length when stretching.
97
What is the equation for strain?
Strain = Change in length (m) / Original length (m)
Strain = ΔL / L
98
What are the units for strain?
* There are no units.
| * It’s just a decimal or percentage.
99
Which is correct?
• A stress causes a strain
• A strain causes a stress
A stress causes a strain.
| Break the meanings apart - A force applied to a cross sectional area causes a change in length
100
Do stress and strain equations apply with both tensile and compressive forces?
What symbols are used to describe each?
Yes, except tensile forces are considered positive, while compressive are negative.
101
In stress and strain calculations, what are the signs of tensile and compressive forces?
* Tensile - Positive
| * Compressive - Negative
102
What is breaking stress?
The point at which the material being stretched will break.
103
Describe the effect of stress up to breaking point on atoms in a material.
* Stress pulls the atoms apart slowly.
| * Eventually the atoms separate completely and the material breaks -> This is the breaking point.
104
What is the ultimate tensile stress?
The maximum stress that a material can withstand.
105
How is the stretching of a material illustrated on a graph?
* Graph of stress (y) against strain (x)
| * Gradient is straight part in the Young modulus
106
Are ultimate tensile stress and breaking stress fixed values?
No, they depend on conditions, such as temperature.
107
On a stress-strain graph, where is the ultimate tensile stress?
The highest point reached by the line.
108
On a stress-strain graph, where is the breaking stress?
At the end of the line.
109
How can you find the (elastic strain) energy from a force-extension graph?
* It is the area under the straight part of the line.
| * Because “W = F x d”.
110
Why does the area under a force-extension graph represent the elastic strain energy stored in a material?
* Work has to be done to stretch the material
| * Before the elastic limit, all the work done is stored as elastic strain energy in the material.
111
What equation gives the energy required to stretch a material?
• E = 1/2 x F x ΔL
OR
• E = 1/2 x k x (ΔL)²
Where F = Final force
(NOTE: This is only if Hooke’s law is obeyed!)
112
Why is the work done is stretching a material equal to 1/2 x F x d, even though W = F x d?
113
Derive the two equations for the energy required to stretch a material.
```
• W = F x d
So
• E = Average force x ΔL
• E = 1/2 x F x ΔL (Equation 1)
• F = k x ΔL - Hooke's law is being obeyed
So
• E = 1/2 x k x (ΔL)^2
```
114
The energy stored in a material by stretching it is equal to...
...the work done in stretching it.
115
What happens to a vertical spring when it has a mass suspended vertically?
It stretches
116
For vertical spring which has a mass suspended vertically, what is stored as it is stretched?
Elastic strain energy
117
For vertical spring which has a mass suspended vertically, what happens to the elastic strain energy when the end of the spring is with the mass is released from suspension?
Elastic Strain energy converts to kinetic energy (as the spring contracts) and gravitational potential energy (as the mass gains height).
The spring begins to compress and the kinetic energy is transferred back to stored elastic strain energy.
118
For vertical spring which has a mass suspended vertically, then the mass is released from suspension, what is the overall energy changed summed up as?
Change in Kinetic energy = Change in Potential energy.
Potential energy includes gravitational potential and elastic strain energy.
119
What happens when two springs in parallel share the load?
The force on each spring is shared.
(If the spring constant is the same for each spring the force on each spring is halved.)
The extension on each spring is shared.
(If the spring constant is the same for each spring the extension on each spring is halved.)
Overall the spring constant (for both springs combined) will increase.
(If the spring constant is the same for each spring the overall spring constant increases.)
120
What is the equation for the overall spring constant in parallel
k(T) = k(1) + k(2)
121
What happens when two springs experience a force in series?
Both springs experience the same force.
Therefore they will both extend by the same amount.
Overall they will extend more.
If both springs are the same they will have an overall extension of 2x. x is extension of 1 wire.
Extends more so spring constant decreases
122
What is the equation for total spring constant in series?
1/k(T) = 1/k(1) + 1/k(2)
123
How do you remember the series and parallel equations for k?
Capacitors are the same as spring constant.
Resistance is opposite to spring constant
124
What happens if you have two identical springs in parallel and 1 spring below in series experiencing a force?
Group the top springs together and think of them as 1 big spring : kT = k1 + k2 = 2k.
There are now two springs in series: use the equation:
125
Are strain and stress on a material proportional?
Only up to the limit of proportionality.
126
What is the Young Modulus of a material?
* The stress divided by the strain below the limit of proportionality.
* Measure of stiffness.
127
What is the symbol for the Young modulus?
E
128
Give the equation for the Young modulus.
E = Stress / Strain
E = (F x L) / (A x ΔL)
```
Where:
F = Force (N)
A = Cross-sectional area (m²)
L = Original length (m)
ΔL = Extension (m)
```
129
Derive the equation for Young modulus.
* E = Stress / Strain
* E = (F / A) / (ΔL / L)
* E = (F x L) / (A x ΔL)
130
What are the units for the Young modulus?
N/m² or Pa
| Same as stress, since strain has no units.
131
What is Young modulus s measure of?
Stiffness of a material.
132
What is the Young modulus used for?
Engineers use it to ensure that materials they are using can withstand sufficient forces.
133
Describe an experiment to find the Young modulus of a wire.
1) Measure the diameter of a thin wire using a micrometer in several places and take an average.
2) Find the cross-sectional area of the wire using “A = πr²”.
3) Clamp the wire with a clamp at one end and over pulley at the other end, so that weights can be hung on the wire.
4) Align a ruler with the wire and attach a marker.
5) Start with the smallest weight to straighten the wire (but ignore this weight in calculations).
6) Measure the unstretched length of the wire from clamped end of the string to the marker.
7) Add 100g weights to the string and measure the extension.
8) Plot a stress (y) against strain (x) graph of your results. The gradient of the straight part is the Young modulus.
134
Name some ways in which the experiment to find the Young modulus of a wire is made more accurate.
* Using a long, thin wire -> Reduces uncertainty
* Taking several diameter readings and finding an average
* Using a thin marker on the wire
* Looking directly at the marker and ruler when measuring extension
135
Why is a stress-strain graph plotted, even though the stress is the independent variable?
On a stress-strain graph, the gradient gives the Young modulus.
136
How can you find the Young modulus from a stress-strain graph?
* It is the gradient of the straight part of the line.
| * This is because E = Stress / Strain
137
On a stress-strain graph, what does the area under the straight part of the line represent?
* The strain energy stored per unit volume.
| * i.e. The energy stored per 1m³ of wire
138
What are the units for elastic strain energy stored per unit volume?
J/m³
139
Why does the area under the straight part of the line on a stress-strain graph give the elastic energy stored in the wire?
* Area = 1/2 x Stress x Strain
* Area = 1/2 x N/m² x No units
* Area = 1/2 x N/m²
* Area = 1/2 x N x m / m³
* Area = 1/2 x F x d / V
* Area = 1/2 x Work done / Volume
140
What equation gives the elastic energy per unit volume of a stretched wire?
Energy per unit volume = 1/2 x Stress x Strain
| As long as Hooke’s law is obeyed!
141
On a force-extension graph, what do the gradient and area under the line give?
* Gradient = Spring constant (k)
| * Area under line = Work done (or elastic energy stored)
142
On a stress-strain graph, what fit the gradient and area under the line give?
* Gradient = Young modulus
| * Area under line = Elastic energy stored per unit volume
143
On a force-extension and stress-strain graph, what do the gradient and area under the line give?
FORCE-EXTENSION:
• Gradient = Spring constant (k)
• Area under line = Work done (or elastic energy stored)
STRESS-STRAIN:
• Gradient = Young modulus
• Area under line = Elastic energy stored per unit volume
144
Describe a typical stress-strain graph for a DUCTILE material being stretched, with all the important points.
* Straight line up until the limit of proportionality.
* Curves towards the x-axis slightly until the elastic limit
* Curves more towards the x-axis until the yield point
* After yield point, the line goes down slightly
* There may be a second peak before the breaking stress
* The UTS is the highest stress reached, usually on the second peak
145
Do force-extension and stress-strain graphs show Hooke’s law?
Yes - straight lines through the origin on both show Hooke’s law.
146
If a material was stretched to the limit of proportionality, would it return to its original size and shape?
Yes, as long as the elastic limit is not exceeded.
147
What are the important points along a stress-strain graph?
* Limit of proportionality (P)
* Elastic limit (E)
* Yield point (Y)
* Ultimate tensile stress (UTS)
* Breaking stress (B)
148
What is the yield point on a stress-strain graph?
* The point beyond which the material starts to stretch without any extra load.
* It is the stress at which a large amount of plastic deformation occurs with constant or reduced load
149
Will a material return to it's original size and shape if it goes past it's limit of proportionality?
Yes
150
Will a material return to it's original size and shape after it goes past it's elastic limit?
no
151
Remember to practise labelling a stress-strain graph.
Find a diagram on the internet.
152
Describe the shape of a typical stress-strain graph for a ductile material.
* Two peaks
* Second peak is higher than the second
* Goes through origin
153
Where is the limit of proportionality on a stress-strain graph?
Where the line starts curving.
154
Where is the elastic limit on a stress-strain graph?
Soon after the limit of proportionality.
155
Where is the yield point on a stress-strain graph?
When the line suddenly goes down (usually the peak of the first bump).
156
On a stress-strain graph, which area represents the energy stored in the material per unit volume?
The area under the curve up to point P (the limit of proportionality).
157
Do brittle materials obey Hooke’s law?
Yes
158
Describe the stress-strain graph for a brittle material.
* Straight line through origin.
| * Reaches breaking point without curving.
159
What does brittle mean?
A material that doesn't deform plastically before it fractures
160
What does ductile mean?
A material that can undergo large plastic deformation before breaking and becomes elongated under tension
161
Example of ductile materials?
Metals that can be drawn into wires such as copper.
Steel
162
What is a tough material?
A material that can absorb lots of energy before it breaks
163
Example of tough materials?
Steel, wood, rubber, rope
164
What is a stiff material?
A material that resists extension while under tension
165
Example of a stiff material
dimaond, steel, lead, wood
166
What is a strong material?
Can withstand a large force without breaking
167
Example of strong materials?
Diamond, graphene
168
Describe the Force - Extension graph for a brittle material
Similar to stress - strain
169
Give an example of a brittle material.
Ceramics (e.g. glass and pottery)
170
Describe the structure of brittle materials
Giant rigid structures.
Strong bonds = very stiff.
171
What happens to a brittle material when stress is applied to it?
How does this differ to other materials?
Stress applied = any tiny cracks at the materials surface get bigger and bigger until the material breaks = BRITTLE FRACTURE.
Rigid structure = cracks grow.
Other materials aren't brittle because the atoms within them move to prevent any cracks getting bigger.
172
What is the difference between a force-extension and stress-strain graph?
* Force-extension is specific to the tested object and depends on the dimensions (metal wires of same material but different lengths and diameters produce different graphs)
* Stress-strain describes the general behaviour of a material, because stress and strain are independent of dimensions
173
What is the opposite of brittle?
Ductile
174
Describe the loading-unloading force-extension graph for a metal wire stretched to below its elastic limit.
The loading and unloading lines are the same and both go through the origin.
175
Describe the loading-unloading force-extension graph for a metal wire stretched beyond its elastic limit.
* The loading line curves towards the x-axis until unloading starts.
* The unloading line is parallel to the loading line and crosses the x-axis at a positive extension value.
176
On a force-extension graph, why is the unloading line parallel to the loading line?
The stiffness constant (k) is still the same since the forces between the atoms are the same as they were during loading. Doesn't cross (0,0) because it is permanently stretched.
177
On a loading-unloading force-extension graph, how can you find the work done to deform the wire (i.e. the energy lost)?
It is the area between the two lines.
178
What type of material will have two peaks on a stress-strain graph?
Ductile
179
What does a stress strain graph look like for brittle, ductile and polymeric materials?
Brittle: High UTS, low strain (doesn't move much before it breaks)
Ductile: Curved after elastic limit (region of plastic deformation)
Polymeric: Small force (and stress) but long extension (and strain)
180
Add flashcards about determining the difference between a strong/weak and brittle/ductile material from a stress-strain graph.
Do it.
181
What do you need to remember for a lot of these rules and graphs
Hooke's law limit of proportionality
| The straight part of the graphs is what we usually talk about
182
How can you tell this material is elastic
It returns to its original length after extension (0,0)
