5. How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism?

Question 1

Why did North Korea invade South Korea?

Answer 1

Kim I1-Sung wanted a united Korea under communist rule. He had good reason to assume that in 1950 he would be successful with the support of Stalin (Soviet Union) and Mao Zedong (China). North Korea’s armed forces, using weapons supplied by the Soviet Union, were stronger than the armed forces of South Korea.
Now China and the Soviet Union had the atom bomb, Kim thought an American response unlikely. Korea was not a major American priority. Public statements by leading American politicians contributed to this belief.

Question 2

How did the United Nations become involved with the North Korean invasion?

Answer 2

President Truman, seeing the North Korean invasion as a communist plot,
acted quickly. He sent the US Seventh Fleet to try to prevent a Chinese
attack on Formosa (Taiwan). He ordered General MacArthur to go to Korea
with military supplies.
The United Nations Security Council met on the day that North Korean
troops crossed the border into South Korea. An American resolution was
passed at the United Nations demanding the withdrawal of the North
Koreans. Its passing was made possible by the absence of the Soviet
representative on the Security Council. At that time the Soviets were not
present as a protest against America’s treatment of communist China.
There were no Russians present to use the veto.
As North Korea had no intention of withdrawing, a second American
resolution was put forward on the 27 June. A third resolution 10 days later
made clear how military forces were to be deployed
Troops from America and 15 other countries were sent to assist South Korea.

Question 3

What did the USA think of the North Korean invasion?

Answer 3

As they had been closely involved in the establishment of the Republic
of Korea they gave support. Under their policy of containment, the USA
was determined to halt further communist expansion. The actions of
North Korea were seen by America as part of Moscow’s attempt to gain
world domination.
The US feared that success in South Korea would encourage communist
China to attack Formosa. If South Korea and Formosa fell to the communists, Japan would come under threat. From America’s point of
view, the fall of South Korea, Formosa (the base of the non-communist
Chinese), and Japan to the communists would represent a major shift
in world power balance. The most effective way to prevent this was to
oppose the North Korean invasion of South Korea.
If the UN had not acted, it is likely America would have acted on its own.
America gave full support to the UN. The UN forces were commanded
by the American General, MacArthur, who took his orders directly from
Truman rather than from UN officials. Half the ground forces were
American, together with over 90% of the air forces and over 85% of the
naval forces.

Question 4

The course of the war:

Answer 4

By September 1950 only a small corner of Korea was not controlled by the
communists but following UN troops landing at Inchon the communists
were pushed back into North Korea. Truman decided to pursue the
communists and so the UN troops invaded North Korea.
The Chinese leader Mao Zedong was angered by this action, sending a
large Chinese army to attack MacArthur’s army. In 1951 the UN army was
forced to retreat back into the South, followed by the communists.
A UN counter-attack forced the Chinese and North Koreans back to the
38th parallel. President Truman did not want a lengthy or costly war in Asia
but MacArthur wanted to carry on into China. He even suggested the use
of the atomic bomb. Truman dismissed MacArthur in April 1951.
In 1953 a ceasefire was agreed which left Korea as two separate countries.
Truman settled for communism being contained in North Korea.

Question 5

What were the results of the Korean War for the UN?

Answer 5

The UN had used military sanctions against an aggressor, showing that it
was more purposeful than the League of Nations had ever been
The UN had failed in its objective of a “unified, independent and
democratic government” for Korea
The massive involvement and influence of the USA made it look more like
an American action than one by the UN.
UN support for the American motion had only been achieved by chance
when the Korean War began, Russia was boycotting the UN Security
Council and so there were no Russian delegates to veto the UN decision.

Question 6

What were the results of the Korean War for the USA?

Answer 6

Forty thousand troops died but many more would have perished if
MacArthur had got his way.
The US policy of containment had been successful as the spread of
communism into South Korea had been prevented
After MacArthur’s invasion of the North, the Soviet Union could say
with some justification that the USA was an expansionist country
Many American Republicans felt the USA had missed an opportunity
to destroy communism in China. This feeling contributed towards the
excesses of McCarthyism in America
American relations with China, as well as with the Soviet Union, were
now strained, bringing a new dimension to the Cold War.

Question 7

Why was Cuba important to the USA?

Answer 7

Cuba was important to the USA for a number of reasons:
. Cuba served an economic purpose for America. The Cubans were
forced to sell their raw materials to America for low prices. Also Cuba
bought American manufactured goods.
The USA invested heavily in the Cuban economy. The railway industry
was run by the USA who also controlled the telephone system and
tobacco plantations.
Guantanamo Bay was an important US naval base.
• The US influenced Cuban politics, ensuring policy was favourable to
America. Unhappiness with this was increasing.
Cuba was a holiday island for rich Americans.
The American mafia controlled much of the gambling, horse racing and
hotels in Cuba.

Question 8

Why did tensions rise with Cuba and America?

Answer 8

In 1959 there was a revolution in Cuba. The unpopular President Batista
was overthrown by revolutionary Fidel Castro. Castro promised to end
American influence and control.
The US was worried by this, as it had supported Batista. They feared Castro
would turn out to be a communist.
Castro negotiated trade agreements with the Soviet Union to export sugar
and Khrushchev sent Castro advisers, military equipment and economic aid.

Question 9

How did the USA react to the Cuban revolution?

Answer 9

The relationship between the countries was tense and frosty.
In response to Cuban trade links with the Soviet Union the USA banned all
trade with Cuba and in January 1961 cut off diplomatic relations.
In April 1961 President Kennedy made available weapons and transport for
an attempt to overthrow Castro. In this invasion 1,500 Cuban exiles landed
at the Bay of Pigs to find themselves faced with 20,000 Cuban troops
armed with weapons supplied by the USSR. The anticipated support from
the Cuban people did not materialise and the exiles were killed or taken
prisoner. The invasion was a dismal failure.
In June 1961 Khrushchev met Kennedy in Vienna. The US was concerned
as Kennedy was thought to be weak and would not back the containment
policy with force.
In July 1961 Castro nationalised all American industries. In September 1961
Khrushchev publicly announced that he would provide arms to Cuba.
In September 1962 Khrushchev told Kennedy that he had no intention
of placing nuclear missiles on Cuba. It was a lie. The Americans became
increasingly alarmed about the Soviet military build-up in Cuba. The
tension was heightened when, on 14 October 1962, a US spy plane
photographed the construction of nuclear missile sites on Cuba.

Question 10

Why did Khrushchev put nuclear missiles into Cuba?

Answer 10

Placing missiles in Cuba would reduce the advantage held by the
USA: The USA had missiles in Western Europe and had recently placed
missiles in Turkey, which bordered the Soviet Union.
To act as a deterrent: Cuba was an ally of the Soviet Union. Missiles on
Cuba would act as a deterrent against another attack. Cuba was the only
communist country in the western hemisphere.
To send out a message of strength to the USA: Khrushchev was seen
by some within the Soviet Union as not being strong enough in his dealings
with the USA. Missiles close to America would give Khrushchev increased
bargaining power.
The Soviet Union wanted a base close to America for its medium-range
missiles: Cuba was only 90 miles away and would be able to reach the USA.
To “close the gap”: Khrushchev wanted to increase the number of Soviet
warheads. Medium-range weapons were cheaper to produce and could
threaten America from Cuba.

Question 11

How did Kennedy react to the placement of nuclear missiles into Cuba?

Answer 11

16 October 1962: Kennedy is informed of the missiles.
21 October 1962: a blockade is decided to be imposed.
24 October 1962: soviet ships reach the blockade, one is allowed through and the rest turn back.
26 October 1962: Khrushchev admits to the existence of nuclear missiles in Cuba and says that he will remove them if Kennedy removes the blockade and promises not to invade Cuba.
27 October 1962: Khrushchev changes his demands and wants the withdrawal of US missiles from Turkey. Kennedy agrees to the first letter and informs Soviet ambassador that missiles in Turkey will be removed within six months.
28 October 1962: Khrushchev agrees to remove the missiles from Cuba.

Question 12

Why did Kennedy respond to the missile crises in that way?

Answer 12

Kennedy wanted to avoid war although he was under great pressure from his
own military leaders to take action. He hoped to avoid Soviet retaliation and
the outbreak of a war in which nuclear weapons might be used. At the very
least it was likely that West Berlin would be invaded.
Kennedy gave himself time to reach a peaceful resolution, avoiding
immediate conflict. He did this by ignoring the second letter. Of his options,
a blockade was the only one to offer this.
He wanted to avoid resentment by humiliating Khrushchev and so privately it
was agreed that the US missiles in Turkey would be removed. This remained
secret for 25 years.

Question 13

What was the outcome of the Cuban missile crises for Cuba?

Answer 13

Cuba remained communist, becoming a base for other
communists in South America.
Castro remained in power, keeping control of the American
industries he had nationalised at the time of the revolution.
Castro maintained the support and protection afforded to
them by the USSR although he was disappointed with the deal
Khrushchev agreed with America.
Unable to trade with America and dependent on the USSR, Cuba
remained poor and isolated in the western hemisphere.

Question 14

What was the outcome of the Cuban missile crises for the USSR?

Answer 14

Khrushchev was able to say that he had acted responsibly by
agreeing to remove the missiles from Cuba.
Cuba was maintained as a communist ally in the western
hemisphere. This was a significant achievement in the face of
American action.
The USA had agreed to remove NATO missiles from Turkey.
Because this was a secret agreement, Khrushchev was unable
to take the credit.
Many in the USSR felt humiliated by the fact that Khrushchev
had been forced to back down and remove the missiles from
Cuba.
Khrushchev’ reputation was tarnished and he was replaced as
Soviet leader within two years. His critics believed he had not
been forceful enough.

Question 15

What was the outcome of the Cuban missile crises for the USA?

Answer 15

The possibility of nuclear war had been avoided.
Kennedy’s prestige in the world increased. He was seen by the
West as a tough negotiator as he did not back down over his
naval blockade.
Some of Kennedy’s military advisers, who were critics of
containment, thought he should invade Cuba to turn back
communism. He avoided this high-risk strategy by standing up
to these hard-liners.
Cuba remained a communist state close to America. Restrictions
on trade between Cuba and America remained in force.
The US was criticised by some of its allies including Britain.
British newspaper articles were critical of America’s
“twO-
faced” attitude, happy to have its missiles in Turkey and at other
European bases and yet prepared to complain about Cuba.
Kennedy had agreed concessions, both not to invade Cuba and
also to the removal of missiles in Turkey. The issue over Turkey
was more difficult as technically they were NATO missiles. This
left some NATO members unhappy. The removal of the missiles
was kept from the American public.

Question 16

Why did America become involved in Vietnam?

Answer 16

Diem’s government was weak and needed support.
US policy was based on the idea of “containment”. The French were
supported to avoid the spread of communism across Asia
President Eisenhower believed in the “domino theory.” _ if South
Vietnam was allowed to become communist, then Laos, Cambodia,
Burma, India, Thailand and Pakistan would quickly follow.
American airforce pilots were sent to support France.
After France had left, military and economic aid was offered to the
South. Additionally 900 military advisers were sent to South Vietnam,
By 1963, the communist Vietcong controlled 40% of South Vietnam.

Question 17

Why did American involvement in Vietnam increase?

Answer 17

President Kennedy decided to increase American military presence.
He Wanted to look strong after the failed Bay of Pigs invasion and
the Cuban Missile Crisis. As well as money to increase the size of the
south Vietnamese army he increased the number of advisers sent
to Vietnam by 100. The role of the advisers was to train the South
Vietnamese army.
Tension between the North and South increased and by the end of
1962 the number of military advisers had reached 12,000. South
Vietnam also received 300 helicopters. In 1963 the number of advisers
totalled 16,000.
In November 1963, President Die was overthrown by a military coup and
later the same month President Kennedy was assassinated. His successor
president Lyndon B Johnson was more prepared to enter into full-scale
conflict in Vietnam than Kennedy had been.
In August 1964, two American warships were attacked by North
Vietnamese gunboats while in international waters. This confrontation was
known as “The Gulf of Tonkin Incident”. In response, the American Senate
granted Johnson permission to give armed support to South Vietnam.

Question 18

Main events of the Vietnam War.

Answer 18

February 1965: Operation Rolling Thunder bombing of North
Vietnam started, with targets that included the Ho Chi
Minh Trail.
March 1965: The first American combat troops were sent to Vietnam.
January 1968: The Tet Offensive- -a large-scale communist attack
on major towns and cities in South Vietnam. Targets
included the American embassy in Saigon. Although
the communists were defeated, the attacks were
a major shock to Americans who thought the war
almost won. The American media called it a defeat and
public support for the war plummeted. Following the
Tet Offensive peace talks started. A ceasefire was not
achieved for a further five years.
March 1968: A group of American soldiers were searching for
Vietcong. They landed by helicopter close to the village
of My Lai. They failed to find any and so rounded up
the inhabitants of the village and massacred them all,
including infants. When news of the massacre reached
the American people there was shock and horror.
Numerous anti-war demonstrations followed.
October 1968: Operation Rolling Thunder finished. More bombs have
been dropped on North Vietnam than were dropped
by the US on Germany and Japan during the Second
World War.
Also in this month the American policy of Vietnamisation started. It was introduced by President Nixon.
1970: President Nixon attacked Cambodia to prevent the
Vietcong from using it as a base from which to attack
US forces.
1973: A ceasefire agreement was signed.

Question 19

What was the strategy imposed by the Vietcong?

Answer 19

They used guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla fighters had no base camp, wore no uniform, used the element of surprise, used underground tunnels, ambushed American troops, and set traps using mines and trip wires.

This reduced moral (average age of American troops was 19) and increased American casualties.

Question 20

What strategies were used by the USA during the Vietnam War?

Answer 20

Bombing: this caused supply lines to be distributed. South Vietnamese targets were attacked. Huge cost of bombing. Extensive bombing of Hanoi (the North Vietnam capital) caused peace treaties to be discussed.
Chemical weapons (agent orange and Napalm): destroyed trees. Napalm caused serious burns on many innocent Vietnamese civilians.
Search and destroy: minimal impact. The raids were based on incorrect information leading to destroyed villages, death of innocents, US troops to become unpopular, and inexperienced ones walking into traps.
Strategic villages.

Question 21

What other problems did Americans face during the Vietnam War?

Answer 21

The use of inexperienced troops: The average age of American troops
was 19. After 1967, they were “drafted” (conscripted) into the army. Many
had just left school and just wanted to return home safely. They were often
trom poorer homes or immigrant backgrounds.

Low morale: The use of guerrilla warfare affected the morale of the troops as they feared what might happen to them. Troops turned to drugs, thousands deserted and many committed suicide.

Declining support in South Vietnam: The winning of, “hearts and minds” was seen as crucial to US success but the use of tactics which killed civilians lost the support of the Vietnamese people. The My Lai massacre was an event that highlighted the failure of this policy.

Aid from Asian countries: Neighbouring countries of Vietnam showed sympathy to the Vietcong by allowing them to access arms and ammunition. America could not, for diplomatic reasons, enter these countries. Cambodia and Laos used the Ho Chi Minh trail to supply necessities to the Vietcong.

Question 22

Why did the USA withdraw from Vietnam?

Answer 22

Tet offensive:
Up to 1967 the war had been going well for the Americans. During the New Year
holiday in January 1967, communist troops attacked major Vietnamese towns and cities including the American embassy in Saigon. The hoped-for revolution in South Vietnam did not materialise and the Vietcong were pushed back. The Offensive was widely seen as a turning point for the Us in the war as it was realised that without increasing the number of combat troops the war could not be won. Additionally, increased numbers of troops would bring even more casualties.

My Lai:
In March 1968 an American troop patrol entered the village of My Lai. They were on a search-and-destroy mission having been informed that members of the Vietcong were hiding there. No Vietcong were found, but nearly 400 civilians, many of whom were women and children, were massacred by the Americans. When details of the brutal massacre become known it shocked the American public, undermining support for the war. The horror of My Lai and the increasing view that the war was not winnable lead Johnson to decide not to run again for president.

Press and media:
In the early years of the war, most American newspapers and news journalists
were supportive of the war. The reports they produced were positive as they did
not wish to undermine the American government’s policy of containment. By 1967 reports from Vietnam were via television programmes which often showed scenes of shocking violence from search-and-destroy raids. At the same time TV reporters were increasingly arguing that the war was unwinnable. One such reporter was CBS’ Walter Cronkite. This changing attitude was not just influencing the American public but even President Johnson. US military leaders including General Westmoreland put forward the view that the media reduced support for the war effort in Vietnam. Others put forward the view that attitudes had been changing since the Tet Offensive of 1967.

Protests against the war:
Public opinion was changing. As more and more bodies of young servicemen
were brought home in body bags the public began asking if America could win
the war. To show disapproval, “draft cards” were burnt and President Johnson
was taunted by students. American student anti-war protests reached their height towards the end of the 1960s. They held the view that the war was morally wrong and therefore did not wish to receive the draft. Often the protests involved the burning of the American flag and ended in violent clashes with the police. One such clash was at Kent State University where the US national guard fired into a group of unarmed protestors. Four students were killed.

Human and economic cost:
In 1967, Life magazine calculated that it was costing $400,000 for each Vietcong fighter killed. This meant cutbacks in the spending on social reforms in President Johnson’s “Great Reform” programme. By 1968, 300 US troops were dying each week. Over 50,000 US troops eventually lost their lives.

Question 23

How did the Vietnam war end?

Answer 23

President Nixon introduced a policy of “vietnamisation”, where America trained and equipped the South Vietnamese so that American troops could withdraw.
In February 1973 a ceasefire was agreed.

Question 24

What were the results of the Vietnam war?

Answer 24

Within two years of the end of the war, South Vietnam fell to the communists. During 1975 communist troops took South Vietnam including the capital, Saigon. In 1976, the North and South were reunited into a single communist country be Ho Chi Minh. In 1993 trade between the USA and Vietnam resumed.
Over 700,000 war veterans suffered psychological effects. Huge areas of land were left ruined by the use of chemicals. The land was littered with unexplored bombs and shells.
The policy of containment was ended by President Nixon.