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7 Animal Form and Function > 45 Hormones and Endocrine System > Flashcards

45 Hormones and Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

What are the major endocrine glands of the body?

A

Hypothalamus, Posterior pituitary, Anterior pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid glands, pancreas, Adrenal medulla, Adrenal cortex, Gonads and the pineal gland.

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2
Q

What are the adrenal glands divided into?

A

Adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

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3
Q

What hormones does the Hypothalamus release?

A

It manufactures neurohormonees that are released from the posterior pituitary. It also releases hormones that regulate the anterior pituitary

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4
Q

What hormones does the Posterior Pituitary release?

A

Oxytocin and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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5
Q

What hormones does the Anterior Pituitary release?

A

Growth hormone (GH), Prolactin, Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinising Hormone (LH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

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6
Q

What hormones does the Thyroid release?

A

Triiodothhyronine (T3) / thyroxine (T4) and Calcitonin

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7
Q

What hormones do the Parathyroid glands release?

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

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8
Q

What hormones does the Pancreas release?

A

Insulin and Glucagon

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9
Q

What hormones does the Adrenal medulla release?

A

Epinephrine/Norepinephrine

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10
Q

What hormones does the Adrenal cortex release?

A

Glucocorticoids and Mineralcorticoids

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11
Q

What hormones do the gonads release?

A

Testes: Androgens
Ovaries: Estrogens and Progestins

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12
Q

What hormones does the pineal gland release?

A

Melatonin

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13
Q

What class of chemical is Oxytocin?

A

Peptide

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14
Q

What class of chemical is Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)?

A

Peptide

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15
Q

What class of chemical is Growth hormone (GH)?

A

Protein

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16
Q

What class of chemical is Prolactin?

A

Protein

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17
Q

What class of chemical is Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)?

A

Glycoprotein

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18
Q

What class of chemical is Luteinising Hormone (LH)?

A

Glycoprotein

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19
Q

What class of chemical is Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?

A

Glycoprotein

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20
Q

What class of chemical is Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

A

Peptide

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21
Q

What class of chemical is Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4 ?

A

Amine

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22
Q

What class of chemical is Calcitonin?

A

Peptide

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23
Q

What class of chemical is Parathyroid hormone?

A

Peptide

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24
Q

What class of chemical is Epinephrine/Norepinephrine?

A

Amine

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25
Q

What class of chemical is Glucocorticoids?

A

Steroid

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26
Q

What class of chemical is Mineralocorticoids?

A

Steroid

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27
Q

What class of chemical is Androgens?

A

Steroid

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28
Q

What class of chemical is Estrogen?

A

Steroid

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29
Q

What class of chemical is Melatonin?

A

Amine

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30
Q

What class of chemical is insulin?

A

Protein

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31
Q

What class of chemical is glucagon?

A

Protein

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32
Q

What class of chemical is progestins?

A

Steroids

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33
Q

What releases oxytocin?

A

Posterior pituitary

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34
Q

What releases Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

A

Posterior pituitary

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35
Q

What releases Growth hormones?

A

Anterior Pituitary

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36
Q

What releases Prolactin?

A

Anterior Pituitary

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37
Q

What releases FSH?

A

Anterior Pituitary

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38
Q

What releases LH?

A

Anterior Pituitary

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39
Q

What releases Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)?

A

Anterior Pituitary

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40
Q

What releases Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?

A

Anterior Pituitary

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41
Q

What releases Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)?

A

Thyroid

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42
Q

What releases Calcitonin?

A

Thyroid

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43
Q

What releases Parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

A

Parathyroid glands

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44
Q

What releases Insulin?

A

Pancreas

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45
Q

What releases Glucagon?

A

Pancreas

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46
Q

What releases Epinephrine/Norepinephrine?

A

Adrenal medulla

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47
Q

What releases Glucocorticoids?

A

Adrenal cortex

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48
Q

What releases Mineralcorticoids?

A

Adrenal cortex

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49
Q

What releases Androgens?

A

Testes

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50
Q

What releases Estrogens?

A

Ovaries

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51
Q

What releases Progestins?

A

Ovaries

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52
Q

What releases Melatonin?

A

Pineal gland

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53
Q

What does ADH stand for?

A

Antidiuretic Hormone

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54
Q

What does GH stand for?

A

Growth Hormone

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55
Q

What does FSH stand for?

A

Follicle stimulating hormone

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56
Q

What does LH stand for?

A

Luteinising hormone

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57
Q

What does TSH stand for?

A

Thyroid stimulating hormone

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58
Q

What does ACTH stand for?

A

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

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59
Q

What does T3 stand for?

A

Triiodothyronine

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60
Q

What does T4 stand for?

A

Thyroxine

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61
Q

What does PTH stand for?

A

Parathyroid hormone

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62
Q

What is the function of Oxytocin?

A

Stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary

gland cells

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63
Q

What is the function of ADH?

A

Promotes retention of water in the kidney

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64
Q

What is the function of GH?

A

Stimulates growth (especially of bones) and metabolic functions

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65
Q

What is the function of Prolactin?

A

Stimulates milk production and secretion

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66
Q

What is the function of FSH?

A

Stimulates production of sperm and ova

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67
Q

What is the function of LH?

A

Stimulates ovaries and testes

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68
Q

What is the function of TSH?

A

Stimulates thyroid gland

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69
Q

What is the function of ACTH?

A

Stimulates adrenal cortex to secret glucocorticoids

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70
Q

What is the function of T3/T4?

A

Stimulates and maintains metabolic processes

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71
Q

What is the function of Calcitonin?

A

Lowers blood calcium levels

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72
Q

What is the function of Parathyroid hormone?

A

Raises blood calcium levels

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73
Q

What is the function of Insulin?

A

Lowers blood glucose level

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74
Q

What is the function of Glucagon?

A

Raises blood glucose level

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75
Q

What is the function of Epinephrine/Norepinephrine?

A

Raise blood glucose level; increase metabolic activities;

constrict certain blood vessels

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76
Q

What is the function of Glucocorticoids?

A

Raise blood glucose levels

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77
Q

What is the function of Androgens?

A

Support sperm formation; promote development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics

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78
Q

What is the function of Estrogens?

A

Stimulate uterine lining growth; promote development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics

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79
Q

What is the function of Progestins?

A

Promote uterine lining growth

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80
Q

What is the function of Melatonin?

A

Involved in biological rhythms

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81
Q

What regulates the release of oxytocin?

A

Nervous system

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82
Q

What regulates the release of ADH?

A

Water/salt balance

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83
Q

What regulates the release of GH?

A

Hypothalamic hormones

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84
Q

What regulates the release of prolactin?

A

Hypothalamic hormones

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85
Q

What regulates the release of FSH?

A

Hypothalamic hormones

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86
Q

What regulates the release of LH?

A

Hypothalamic hormones

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87
Q

What regulates the release of TSH?

A

Hypothalamic hormones

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88
Q

What regulates the release of ACTH?

A

Hypothalamic hormones

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89
Q

What regulates the release of T3/T4?

A

TSH

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90
Q

What regulates the release of Calcitonin?

A

Calcium in the blood

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91
Q

What regulates the release of _PTH?

A

Calcium in the blood

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92
Q

What regulates the release of Insulin?

A

Glucose in the blood

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93
Q

What regulates the release of Glucagon?

A

Glucose in the blood

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94
Q

What regulates the release of Epinephrine/Norepinephrine?

A

Nervous system

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95
Q

What regulates the release of Glucocorticoids?

A

ACTH

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96
Q

What regulates the release of Mineralocorticoids?

A

K+ in blood and angiotensin II

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97
Q

What regulates the release of Androgens?

A

FSH and LH

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98
Q

What regulates the release of Estrogens?

A

FSH and LH

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99
Q

What regulates the release of Progestins?

A

FSH and LH

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100
Q

What regulates the release of Melatonin?

A

Light/dark cycles

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101
Q

What drives the metamorphosis of caterpillars?

A

A hormone called ecdysteroid stimulates the growth of adult cells, the programmed death of larval cells, and the behaviours of the motionless pupal stage.

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102
Q

What are the basic signalling systems of the body?

A

Endocrine and Nervous

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103
Q

What signalling system releases hormones?

A

The endocrine systems, although sometimes the release is based on nervous input

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104
Q

What are the forms of chemical signalling in the body?

A

Endocrine signalling, paracrine signalling, autocrine signalling, synaptic signalling and neuroendocrine signalling

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105
Q

What is Endocrine signalling?

A

Hormones are secreted into the blood stream/hemolymph where they circulate and trigger responses in target cells elsewhere in the body

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106
Q

What are some examples of responses mediated by Endocrine signalling?

A

They maintain homeostasis, mediate responses to environmental stimuli, and regulate growth and development.

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107
Q

How does endocrine signalling differ between insects and mammals?

A

In insects the hormones circulate in hemolymph, not blood.

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108
Q

What is the basic purpose of endocrine signalling?

A

To lead to a coordinated response from around the body

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109
Q

What is paracrine signalling?

A

Secreted molecules diffuse locally and trigger a response in nearby cells.

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110
Q

What are the chemicals secreted through paracrine signalling called?

A

“Local regulators”

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111
Q

What are some examples of paracrine signalling?

A

Cytokines act as “local regulators” by communicating between immune cells.

In response to injury growth factors are released to trigger tissue repair.

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112
Q

What is the basic purpose of paracrine signalling?

A

To mediate a coordinated response in a tissue region.

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113
Q

What is autocrine signalling?

A

Secreted molecules diffuse locally and trigger a response in the cells that secrete them.

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114
Q

What is synaptic signalling?

A

When the axon terminal receives an action potential it releases “neurotransmitters” to carry this signal onto the dendrite etc.

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115
Q

What is neuroendocrine signalling?

A

Specialised neurons called “neurosecretory cells” terminate at a blood vessel where if they receive an action potential release “neurohormones” into the blood

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116
Q

What is an example of neuroendocrine signalling?

A

The release of Antidiuretic hormone in response to the nervous system’s processing of water availability.

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117
Q

What is ADH also known as?

A

Vasopressin.

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118
Q

What are chemical messengers that act out side the body called?

A

Pheromones.

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119
Q

What is the term given to cells that secrete hormones?

A

Endocrine cells.

120
Q

Conceptually speaking, where are endocrine cells found?

A

As part of organs such as the stomach or in specialised glands called “endocrine glands”

121
Q

Besides the endocrine glands, where are endocrine cells found in large concentrations?

A

Thymus, Heart, Liver, Stomach, Kidneys, Small Intestine.

122
Q

What is the opposite of endocrine?

A

Exocrine

123
Q

What is the exocrine system?

A

Exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts onto body surfaces and cavities.

124
Q

What are some examples of exocrine glands?

A

Salivary gland as it releases saliva into the oral cavity.

The pancreas through its secretion of enzymes into the duodenum.

The gastric glands of the stomach. Also the skin glands that secret oils onto the skin.

125
Q

How do the endocrine and exocrine systems differ?

A

The endocrine system general function is to control other body systems (including the exocrine system) where as the primary function of the exocrine system is to secrete useful substances such as enzymes and to form protective surfaces.

126
Q

What are the major classes of hormones?

A

Polypeptides (proteins and peptides), steroids and amines

127
Q

What is the structure of insulin?

A

Two polypeptide chains

128
Q

What is the general structure of polypeptide hormones and how are they formed?

A

They often consist of two polypeptide chains. These are often formed through the cleavage of one polypeptide chain.

129
Q

What is an example of a glucocorticoid?

A

Cortisol

130
Q

What is cortisol chemically?

A

A form of glucocorticoid and thus is a steroid hormone

131
Q

What type of hormone is ecdysteroid?

A

A steroid hormone

132
Q

What is the structure of a steroid hormone?

A

They are lipids with 4 fused carbon rings.

133
Q

How are steroid hormones formed?

A

They are all derived from cholesterol

134
Q

How are amine hormones produced?

A

From a single amino acid that is either tyrosine or tryptophan

135
Q

What is the solubility of polypeptide hormones?

A

All are water soluble (hydrophilic)

136
Q

What is the solubility of steroid hormones?

A

All are lipid-solube and thus hydrophobic

137
Q

What is the solubility of amine hormones?

A

Some are hydrophilic, some are hydrophobic

138
Q

What is an example of a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic amine?

A

Hydrophilic: Epinephrine
Hydrophobic: Thyroxine

139
Q

What is epinephrine also known as?

A

Adrenaline

140
Q

How do water-soluble and lipid-soluble hormones differ in their pathways through the cell?

A

Water-soluble hormones cannot easily pass through the plasma membrane so often activate receptors on the extracellular side of the membrane.

Lipid soluble hormones can easily pass through the plasma membrane so activate receptors in the cytoplasms or nucleus directly.

141
Q

What is the signal pathway of epinephrine in the liver?

A

It binds to a “G-protein coupled receptor“ causing the release of a G protein. This G proteins triggers adenylyl cyclase to convert ATP to the “second messenger” cAMP. The cAMP activates Protein Kinase A. This leads to inhibition of glycogen synthesis and a promotion of glycogen breakdown.

142
Q

What hormones bind the cells surface?

A

All water-soluble hormones. However some lipid-soluble hormones, especially estrogens, have been show to have some receptors on the plasma membrane.

143
Q

What is an example of an oestrogen?

A

Estradiol

144
Q

What is the effect of estradiol?

A

In bids and frogs it is used to synthesise egg yoke.

145
Q

What is the signalling pathways of estradiol in egg yolk formation?

A

As a lipid-soluble hormone it passes through the plasma membrane of a LIVER CELL and binds with an “Estradiol receptor” to form a Hormone-receptor complex.

The hormone-receptor complex enters the nucleus where it triggers the transcription of the gene for the protein “Vitellogenin”

This protein leaves the LIVER and travels through the bloodstream to the reproductive system where is used to produce egg yolk.

146
Q

How do lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones differ in their cellular response?

A

Lipid-soluble hormones often lead to the expression of specific genes.

Water soluble hormones can lead to gene expression but also often act as regulators for enzymes (i.e. glucagon sysnthesis) and can even change the shape of the

147
Q

What is the basic signal pathway for lipid soluble hormones?

A

Steroid hormones often cross the plasma membrane and bind to receptors in the cytoplasm to form Hormone-receptor complexes that then pass into the nucleus to initiate transcription

Non-steroid hormones often cross through the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope before binding to receptors in the nucleus, triggering transcription.

148
Q

What are some examples of lipid-soluble non-steroid hormones?

A

Thyroxine and Vitamin D

149
Q

What is an example of a hormone with different effects in different cells?

A

Epinephrine which triggers glycogen breakdown in the liver, increased blood flow to skeletal muscles, and decreases blood flow to the digestive tract.

150
Q

How do different cells have different responses to epinephrine?

A

Also the target cells have different G Protein receptors.

Liver cells have a β-type epinephrine receptor that activates the enzyme protein kinase A, which in turn regulate enzymes in glycogen metabolism.

In blood vessels supplying skeletal muscle, the same kinase is activated by the same epinephrine receptor as liver cells (β-type). This inactivates a muscle specific enzyme causing smooth muscle relaxation and thus vasodilation

Intestinal blood vessels have α-type epinephrines receptor. These do not activate kinase A and instead trigger a different signalling pathway with different enzymes. The result is smooth muscle contraction (vasoconstriction) and thus less blood flow to the intestines.

151
Q

What type of chemical are cytokines?

A

Polypeptides

152
Q

What type of chemicals are “growth factors”?

A

Most are polypeptides.

153
Q

What is the general response to “growth factors?”

A

They stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation.

154
Q

What is an example of a chemical messenger that does not fit into the classical steroid/polypeptide/amine groups?

A

Nitric Oxide (NO) that is a gas

155
Q

In what ways does Nitric Oxide (NO) act as a chemical messenger?

A

It is both a neurotransmitter and a local regulator.

156
Q

How does nitric oxide act as a local regulator?

A

When blood oxygen levels of a region fall, endothelial cells of blood vessels secrete Nitric Oxide. This acts as a local regulator to smooth the surrounding smooth muscle causing vasodilation and thus increased blood flow, leading to more oxygen.

157
Q

How long lasting is Nitric Oxide?

A

Not very and thus often breaks down within a few seconds.

158
Q

Where is the activity of Nitric Oxide seen specifically?

A

It acts to promote erection by increasing blood flow to the erectile tissue.

159
Q

How can erectile dysfunction by mitigated?

A

With the drug Viagra (sildenafil citrate) that promotes the release of Nitric oxide and thus vasodilation of the blood vessels leading to the erectile tissue.

160
Q

What is an example of a local regulator besides cytokine, nitric oxide and growth factors?

A

Prostaglandins

161
Q

What are prostaglandins chemical?

A

A diverse group of hormones that are modified fatty acids.

162
Q

In what body systems are prostagladins involved?

A

Reproductive system, immune system and circulatory system.

163
Q

How are prostagladins involved in the reproductive system?

A

They are produced in the prostate and secreted into the semen. If that semen reaches the female reproductive tract it stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscle of the uterus, helping sperm reach the eggs.

During childbirth, prostaglandin-secreting cells of the placenta cause the uterus muscles to become more excitable, helping to induce labor

164
Q

How are prostagladins involved in the immune system?

A

They promote fever and inflammation while also intensifying the feeling of pain.

165
Q

How are prostagladins involved in the circulatory system?

A

Prostaglandins also help regulate the aggregation of platelets, one step in the formation of blood clots.

166
Q

What drug affects prostagladins and why?

A

Aspirin and ibuprofen inhibit prostaglandin synthesis to prevent the inflammation, fever and pain they causes.

By preventing prostaglandin release, Aspirin also inhibits the aggregation of platelets and thus blood clot formation

167
Q

What is a consequence of continued Aspirin consumption?

A

Prostaglandins also maintain a protective lining in the stomach. Therefore long-term aspirin use can can cause stomach irritation.

168
Q

What drug might a person at risk of heart attacks take?

A

A long-term course of Aspirin as it prevents the aggregation of platelets and thus clots. These clots can block coronary arteries and thus Aspirin prevents heart attacks.

169
Q

What is an example of a neuroendocrine signalling?

A

The regulation of development of butterflies.

170
Q

How do neurohormones stimulate development in caterpillars?

A

Neurosecretory cells in the brain produce prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), which is stored in the corpora cardiaca until release.

When released the PTTH triggers the Prothoracic gland to release Ecdysteroid. The release of PTTH is episodic, with each release stimulating a moult.

Caterpillar development is simultaneous regulated by Juvenile hormone (JH). When PTTH is released, if JH is at a high concentration to caterpillar will simply moult. However if as PTTH is released the JH hormone levels are low, the caterpillar will undergo metamorphosis.

171
Q

How did the knowledge of the chemical basis of caterpillar development lead to pesticide enhancements?

A

Pesticides were developed that bind to the Ecdysteroid receptors and thus trigger early metamorphosis.

172
Q

How is secretin released and what affect does it have?

A

Low pH in the duodenum triggers its release from S cells in the duodenal walls. It causes the pancreas to release more bicarbonate ions.

173
Q

What does a simple hormone pathway refer to?

A

One in which endocrine cells responds to an environmental stimulus by releasing a chemical that targets a region that responds by affecting that variable.

(as opposed to a hormone cascade in which one hormone triggers the release of another hormone else where until eventually a hormone is released that triggers a response)

174
Q

What does a simple neuroendocrine pathway refer to?

A

One in which sensory neurons respond to a stimulus by sending nerve impulses to a neurosecretory cell, triggering secretion of a neurohormone. Upon reaching its target cells via the bloodstream, the neurohormone binds to its receptor, triggering signal transduction that results in a specific response.

(as opposed to a hormone cascade in which one hormone triggers the release of another hormone else where until eventually a hormone is released that triggers a response)

175
Q

What is the pathway for suckling?

A

Suckling by the baby is a stimulus that triggers a sensory neurone to relay this signal to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus then directs the posterior pituitary to secrete the neurohormone Oxytocin which triggers the smooth muscle of the breasts to release more milk.

176
Q

What is an example of a positive feedback neurohormone response and why is it classed this way?

A

Suckling. This is because the release of milk triggers more suckling from the infant and thus is positive feedback.

177
Q

Where are negative feedback loops often seen?

A

In homeostatic responses in which a variable deviates leading to a response to return this variable to its normal place. As the variable nears its normal value the response weakens and thus negative.

178
Q

Besides negative feedback loops, what properties are common of homeostatic regulatory systems?

A

An antagonistic pair of hormones i.e. insulin counters the response of glucagon.

179
Q

Where in the pancreas are insulin and glucagon released?

A

Insulin is released beta cells and Glucagon is released by alpha cells.

180
Q

How does insulin lower blood sugar?

A

It directs all cells except brain cell to take in and store glucose.

(the brain cells take up glucose anyway, even with the input of )

181
Q

How does glucagon raise blood sugar levels?

A

It directs the liver to increase hydrolysis of glycogen.

182
Q

What is the technical term for what we just call “diabetes”?

A

Diabete mellitus

183
Q

What is diabetes mellitus caused by?

A

A deficiency of insulin release or a decreased response to insulin in the target tissue/

184
Q

What does fat breakdown form? (not fatty acid glycerol) Why can they be a problem?

A

Acid metabolites which lower blood pH and thus possibly lead to acidosis.

185
Q

What happens during diabetes?

A

Because insulin isn’t being released/acted on. The blood glucose continues to rise, which is not necessarily an acute problem

Ironically however without glucose the cells can not take up this glucose in the blood and instead use fats as a food source.

However this use of fats releases acid metabolites which can cause damage by lowering blood pH.

186
Q

What is type 1 diabetes also known as?

A

Insulin dependant diabetes

187
Q

What is type 2 diabetes also known as?

A

Non-insulin dependant diabetes

188
Q

What causes type 1 diabetes?

A

An autoimmune response to the beta cells that typically produce insulin

189
Q

Nowadays how is insulin produced for diabetics?

A

From genetically modified bacteria.

190
Q

What causes type 2 diabetes?

A

The target cells stop responding to insulin, which is released normally.

191
Q

What are the primary endocrine glands of the brain?

A

The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.

192
Q

What is the structure of the hypothalamus and pituitary?

A

The hypothalamus is a small region at the base of the brain that is located just in front of the spinal cord.

The posterior pituitary gland is an extension of the hypothalamus and has hypothalamic axons running into it.

The anterior pituitary is next to the posterior pituitary but does not have axons from the hypothalamus.

193
Q

What do many of the hormones of the anterior pituitary act on and how does this classify these hormones?

A

Many of the anterior pituitary hormones act on other endocrine glands and are thus “tropic hormones”

194
Q

What does “tropic hormone” refer to?

A

A hormone that acts on another endocrine gland and thus fine tunes its response.

195
Q

How are hormones classed if they act on other endocrine glands?

A

’Tropic hormones’

196
Q

How is the anterior pituitary gland regulated? What is a specific example?

A

By tropic hormones released by the hypothalamus.

For example “prolactin releasing hormone” triggers the release of prolactin

197
Q

What are hypothalamic hormones divided into?

A

“Releasing hormones” which trigger the hypothalamus to release a hormone i.e. “prolactin releasing hormone”

Also “inhibiting hormones” which prevent the anterior pituitary from releasing such hormones.

198
Q

What is a series of tropic hormones called?

A

A “hormone cascade”

199
Q

What is an example of a hormone cascade?

A

An infant’s response to being cold

200
Q

What happens during the hormone cascade when infants are cold?

A

This stimulus triggers a sensory neurone which relays this to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus releases “thyrotropin-releasing hormone” which instructs the anterior pituitary to release “thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)” (which is also known as )

This TSH causes the thyroid to release T3 and T4. These increase metabolism and thus warm up the infant.

201
Q

What are T3 and T4 hormones structurally?

A

Amines. Triiodothyronine (T3) has 3 iodine atoms whereas thyroxine (T4) has 4 iodine atoms

202
Q

What causes goitre?

A

The thyroid lacks iodine so stops makes T3 and T4. As this is part of a negative feedback loop this triggers the hypothalamus to instruct the anterior pituitary to release large amounts of TSH.

These high TSH levels cause the thyroid to swell, resulting in goitre.

203
Q

What hormones have unique response in other animals?

A

Thyroxine, Prolactin and Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

204
Q

How does thyroxine response vary between animals?

A

In frogs it stimulates reabsorption of the tadpole’s tail during metamorphosis

205
Q

How does prolactin response vary between animals?

A

Prolactin stimulates mammary gland growth and milk synthesis in mammals, regulates fat metabolism and reproduction in birds, delays metamorphosis in amphibians, and regulates salt and water balance in freshwater fishes.

206
Q

How does melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) response vary between animals?

A

In amphibians, fishes, and reptiles, MSH regulates skin color by controlling pigment distribution in skin cells called melanocytes. In mammals, MSH functions in hunger and metabolism in addition to coloration.

207
Q

What do many late-stage diseases cause?

A

A wasting condition called “cachexia” which causes weight loss, muscle atrophy and loss of appetites.

208
Q

What diseases specifically trigger “cachexia”

A

Late-stage cancer, AIDS, tuberculosis, and certain aging disorders

209
Q

What causes “cachexia”?

A

Over release of melanocyte-stimulatign hormone.

210
Q

Where is melanocyte-stimulating hormone released?

A

From the anterior pituitary gland.

211
Q

What are FSH and LH grouped as?

A

Gonadotropins.

212
Q

What are Gonadotropins?

A

FSH and LH (regulate the gonads)

213
Q

What stimulates the release of Gonadotropins?

A

Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)

214
Q

What does the release of GH do?

A

It stimulates the liver to release “insulin like growth factors” (IGF’s ) which stimulate bone and cartilage growth.

215
Q

What does “GnRH” stand for?

A

“Gonadotropin releasing hormone”

216
Q

What does “IGF” stand for?

A

Insulin-like growth factor

217
Q

Does does MSH stand for?

A

Melanocyte stimulating hormone

218
Q

Besides growth, what do growth hormones regulate?

A

They trigger metabolic processes that raise blood glucose levels and thus counter the affects of insulin

219
Q

What does hyper secretion of growth hormones cause?

A

In children it causes Gigantism leading to a correctly proportioned but extremely tall person.

In adults few target cells for growth hormones remain. These target cells are clustered in the face, hands and feet. Therefore these regions grow disproportionately large, leading to “acromegaly”

220
Q

What does GH stand for?

A

Growth hormone

221
Q

What does HGH stand for?

A

Human growth hormone

222
Q

What is growth hormone also known as?

A

Somatropin

223
Q

What is a common cause of dwarfism/gigantism?

A

The pituitary gland malfunctioning, often due to a tumour.

224
Q

What is under secretion of thyroid hormones called?

A

Hypothyroidism

225
Q

What does “hyperthyroidism” mean?

A

An over release of thyroid hormones.

226
Q

What are some symptoms of hypothyroidism?

A

Weight gain, lethargy, and intolerance to cold in adults

227
Q

What are some symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

A

High body temperature, profuse sweating, weight loss, irritability, and high blood pressure

228
Q

What is a typical cause of hyperthyroidism? What causes is and what unique symptom does it present?

A

Graves’ disease in which an autoimmune response leads to antibodies that bind to and active the TSH receptor.

This leads to bulging eyes through fluid accumulation.

229
Q

What happens if Ca2+ ion levels in the blood deviate from normal?

A

At low levels skeletal muscles begin to contract convulsively, a potentially fatal condition called tetany.

At high levels precipitates of calcium phosphate form, causing organ damage.

230
Q

What is the structure of the parathyroid glands?

A

A set of 4 small glands on the posterior of the thyroid.

231
Q

What endocrine gland regulates blood calcium levels?

A

The parathyroid glands.

232
Q

What is a typical concentration of calcium in the blood?

A

10 mg/100 mL

233
Q

How does the parathyroid gland regulate blood calcium levels?

A

If the Ca2+ levels drop it releases parathyroid hormone (PTH)

In bones PTH triggers a breakdown of the mineralised matrix and thus releases Ca2+ into the blood.

In the kidneys PTH triggers the increased reabsorption of Ca2+. It also triggers the kidney to activate Vitamin D which intern increases calcium uptake in the intestines.

234
Q

What happens if blood calcium levels raise above the desired values?

A

The thyroid glands releases calcitonin which inhibits bone reabsorption and causes the kidney to release Ca2+ into the urine.

235
Q

How does calcitonin release differ between animals?

A

In fish, rodents and some other animals it is used throughout their entire lifetime to regulate calcium levels.

In humans it is only used during childhood i.e. during rapid bone growth.

236
Q

What is the primary function of the adrenal glands?

A

TO mediate the body’s response to stress.

237
Q

What is the structure of the adrenal glands?

A

The outer portion is the adrenal cortex and the inner region is the adrenal medulla.

238
Q

How do the adrenal medulla and cortex differ fundamentally?

A

The adrenal cortex is a true endocrine gland whereas the adrenal medulla is a neuroendocrine gland that secretes chemicals based on nerve impulses.

239
Q

What class of chemicals are epinephrine and norepinephrine?

A

Catecholamines

240
Q

What do catecholamines include?

A

Norepinephrine and Epinephrine

241
Q

What effects does the release of catecholamines have on the various parts of the body?

A

It mobilises energy resources by increasing the rate of glycogen breakdown in the liver and skeletal muscles, promotes glucose release by liver cells, and stimulate the release of fatty acids from fat cells.

It also increases heart rate and stroke volume as well as dilating the bronchioles. These factors increase oxygen availability to muscles.

They also constrict some blood vessels and dilate others. This redirects blood from from the skin, digestive system and kidneys to the brain, heart and muscles.

242
Q

How can the effects of norepinephrine be used therapeutically?

A

It can be used as a heart stimulant and as Asthma attack relief as it opens the airways.

243
Q

How do epinephrine and norepinephrine differ in the response they elicit?

A

Epinephrine generally has a stronger effect on heart and metabolic rates, while the primary role of norepinephrine is in modulating blood pressure.

244
Q

What are neurons that are not under voluntary control called?

A

Autonomic

245
Q

What does autonomic refer to?

A

Not under voluntary control i.e. the autonomic nervous system.

246
Q

How is the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine triggered?

A

Under periods of stress nerve impulses travel to the adrenal medulla and trigger its neurosecretory cells to release hormones

247
Q

What are the adrenal glands broadly responsible for?

A

The “fight or flight response”

248
Q

What class of chemical are catechloamines?

A

Amines

249
Q

What does the adrenal medulla secrete?

A

Glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids

250
Q

What are glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids grouped as?

A

Corticosteroids

251
Q

What is the pathway leading to a release in corticosteroids?

A

Stressful stimuli cause the hypothalamus to release trophic hormones that in turn cause the anterior pituitary to release ACTH.

ACTH then causes the adrenal cortex to secret corticosteroids i.e. mineralcorticoids and glucocorticoids.

252
Q

What is an example of a glucocorticoid?

A

Cortisol

253
Q

What is cortisol a type of?

A

Glucocorticoid

254
Q

What are the effects of mineralcorticoids?

A

Increases retention of sodium ions and water by the kidneys

Increased blood volume and blood pressure

255
Q

What are the effects of glucocorticoids?

A

Stimulates the breakdown of proteins and fats and their conversion to glucose for energy

Partial suppression of the immune system.

256
Q

How specifically do glucocorticoids lead to the conversion of proteins into glucose?

A

Glucocorticoids like cortisol cause the breakdown of skeletal muscle proteins. The amino acids this yields are transported to the liver for conversion to glucose.

This glucose is secreted into the blood stream for use in somatic cells.

257
Q

How can the effects of glucocorticoids be used medically?

A

It effect of suppressing the immune system can be used to treat inflammatory diseases like arthritis.

258
Q

What is a consequence of prolonged medical use of glucocorticoids? How can this be mitigated?

A

The other effects of glucocorticoids such as the breakdown of muscle can be detrimental.

Therefore “non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs” (NSAIDs) are often used.

259
Q

What does “NSAIDs” stand for?

A

Non-steroidal anti-inflamatory drug

260
Q

What are some examples of NSAIDS\s?

A

Aspirin and ibuprofen

261
Q

What is an example of a mineralocorticoid?

A

Aldosterone.

262
Q

What is the basic purpose of aldosterone?

A

To regulate ion and water homeostasis and to function in the stress response.

263
Q

What are the specific effects of aldosterone and how are they regulated?

A

Low blood volume or pressure leads to the production of angiotensin II which stimulates the release of aldosterone. Aldosterone stimulates cells in the kidneys to reabsorb sodium ions and water from filtrate, raising blood pressure and volume.

It also acts as part of the stress response: high levels of ACTH in the blood cause the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone and glucocorticoids.

264
Q

What can trigger glucocorticoids to be released?

A

An increase in ACTH levels in the blood

265
Q

Besides epinephrine/norepinephrine and corticosteroids, what does the adrenal gland secrete and what role does this play?

A

The adrenal cortex releases some sex hormones. These are mainly androgens by it does release do estrogens and progestins.

The function of this is not known except that adrenal androgens account for female sex drive.

266
Q

What is an example of an androgen?

A

Testosterone

267
Q

What is an example of a progestin?

A

Progesterone

268
Q

What is an example of a oestrogen?

A

Estradiol

269
Q

What is testosterone a type of?

A

Androgen

270
Q

What is progesterone a type of?

A

Progestin

271
Q

What is estradiol a type of?

A

Estrogen

272
Q

How is sex determined in embryos? (hint: don’t think genetics)

A

During embryonic development the genitalia secrete hormones that determent the development of male structures. For example the release of testosterone makes the embryo.

If the genitals are removed in utro it will be physically female (even if has XY chromosomes)

This suggests that in mammals the “default gender” is female, although this differs between different types of animals.

273
Q

What is the “anabolic action” of testosterone?

A

Its promotion of muscle-building, hence its use as an anabolic steroid.

274
Q

What are some effects of testosterone steroid abuse?

A

Severe acne outbreaks and liver damage, as well as significant decreases in sperm count and testicular size.

275
Q

What is testosterone responsible for?

A

Regulating the development of male secondary sex characteristics.

276
Q

What do estrogens do?

A

Maintain the female reproductive tract and regular the development of female secondary sex characteristics.

277
Q

What do progestins do?

A

Prepare and maintain tissues of the uterus required to support the growth and development of an embryo.

278
Q

What triggers the release of Gonadal sex hormones?

A

They are regulated by Gonadotropin (FSH and LH)

279
Q

What does the term “gonadal sex hormone” include?

A

Androgens, testosterone and progestins

280
Q

What are Androgens, testosterone and progestins grouped as?

A

Gonadal sex hormone

281
Q

Where is albumin produced?

A

The liver

282
Q

Where is fibrinogen produced?

A

The liver

283
Q

Where is transferrin produced?

A

The liver

284
Q

Where is angiotensin produced?

A

The liver

285
Q

What produces LH and FSH?

A

Gonadotroph cells of the anterior pituitary.

286
Q

Where are “Gondatotroph cels” and what do they release?

A

They are in the anterior pituitary and produce LH and FSH.

287
Q

What is histamine chemically?

A

An amine

288
Q

What class of chemical is serotonin?

A

An amine.

289
Q

What type of hormone is dopamine?

A

An amine.

290
Q

What is melatonin chemically?

A

A modified amino acid.

291
Q

Where is melatonin released?

A

From the pineal gland in the brain.

292
Q

What does the pineal gland release?

A

Melatonin

293
Q

What must ‘melatonin’ not be confused with?

A

The skin pigment ‘Melanin’

294
Q

What are the basic functions that melatonin has?

A

Melatonin regulates functions related to light and to seasons marked by changes in day length.

It also affects skin pigmentation (but is NOT melanin)

295
Q

How does melatonin regulate sleep

A

Melatonin is secreted at night, and the amount released depends on the length of the night. In winter, for example, when days are short and nights are long, more melatonin is secreted.

Nightly increases in the levels of melatonin play a significant role in promoting sleep.

296
Q

How is the release of melatonin controlled?

A

By a group of neurons in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).

The SCN functions as a biological clock and receives input from specialised light-sensitive neurons in the retina of the eye.

Although the SCN regulates melatonin production during the 24-hour light/dark cycle, melatonin also influences SCN activity.

7 Animal Form and Function (12 decks)

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