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A-Level Psychology (VC) > 4.2.3 - Research Methods > Flashcards

4.2.3 - Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

Define observation?

A

Psychologists watch and listen to participants’ observable behaviour (the DV)

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2
Q

Define naturalistic observations?

A

Watching + recording behaviour in setting it would usually occur

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3
Q

2 benefits of naturalistic observations?

A
  • High external validity
  • High generalisability

(Due to behaviour in normal setting)

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4
Q

2 problems with naturalistic observations?

A
  • Lower internal validity
  • Low repeatability

(Due to no control of EVs/CVs)

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5
Q

Example of naturalistic observations?

A

Observing childrens’ behaviour in a school

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6
Q

Define controlled observations?

A

Watching + recording behaviour in a structured environment with some variable control

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7
Q

2 positives of controlled observations?

A
  • High internal validity
  • High repeatability

(Due to control of EVs and CVs)

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8
Q

Example of controlled observations?

A

Lab experiments using observation to measure DV

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9
Q

Define covert observations?

A

Participants’ behaviour watched + recorded WITHOUT their knowledge/ consent

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10
Q

1 positive and 1 negative of covert observations?

A 
P = less participant reactivity to demand characteristics
N = unethical (no informed consent or privacy)
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11
Q

Define overt observations?

A

Participants’ behaviour watched + recorded WITH their knowledge + consent

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12
Q

1 positive and 1 negative of overt observations?

A 
P = ethical 
N = more demand characteristics causing participant reactivity
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13
Q

Example of covert observations?

A

2 way mirror

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14
Q

Example of overt observations?

A

Lab experiment using consent form

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15
Q

Define participant observation?

A

Researcher becomes member of group he/ she is observing

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16
Q

Example of participant observation?

A

Zimbardo in SPE (acted as lead researcher + prison superintendent)

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17
Q

1 positive and 1 negative of participant observation?

A 
P = High validity (due to increased insight)
N = Researcher can lose objectivity (go native)
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18
Q

What is ‘going native’?

A

Researcher in participant observation blurs line between researcher and participant role

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19
Q

Define non-participant observation?

A

Researcher remains outside group he/ she is observing

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20
Q

Example of non-participant observation?

A

Female researcher can’t join the group of Yr 10 boy participants, so observes from outside perspective

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21
Q

1 positive and 1 negative of non-participant observation?

A 
P = Researcher remains objective
N = Loss of valuable inside insight
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22
Q

Title and date of Rosenhan’s study?

A
  • ‘On being sane in insane places’

- 1973

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23
Q

What type of observation was Rosenhan’s study?

A
  • Naturalistic
  • Covert
  • Participant
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24
Q

Briefly outline events of Rosenhan’s study

A
  • 8 pseudo-patients presented themselves at diff US psych institutions hearing ‘voices’
  • All but one diagnosed with schizophrenia in remission
  • Once inside stopped claiming symptoms + started observing
  • Staff began classifying normal behaviour as symptomatic
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25
Q

What did Rosenhan’s study show?

A

The influence of environment on mental diagnosis (can cause misdiagnosis)

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26
Q

What is qualitative data?

A

Data that is expressed in words

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27
Q

What is quantitative data?

A

Data that is expressed numerically

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28
Q

Give 3 examples of qualitative data

A
  • Transcript from interview
  • Notes from counselling session
  • Notes from observational study
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29
Q

Give 2 positives of qualitative data

A
  • Greater detail

- Greater external validity (data explained, so can be related to real life)

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30
Q

Give 2 negatives of qualitative data

A
  • Hard to analyse and compare data

- Conclusions are subjective (open to researcher bias)

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31
Q

Give 1 example of quantitative data

A

Individual scores from participants (e.g. number of words recalled)

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32
Q

Give 2 positives of quantitative data

A
  • Easy to compare

- Conclusions are objective (less researcher bias)

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33
Q

Give 2 negatives of quantitative data

A
  • Less detail

- Lower external validity (less meaning given to data)

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34
Q

How do you decide whether to use qualitative/ quantitative data?

A
  • Neither better
  • Depends on research (how the DV is measured)
  • Can use combination
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35
Q

Define primary data

A

Data that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purpose of the research project

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36
Q

Define secondary data

A

Data that has been collected by someone else and pre-dates the current research project (‘desk research’)

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37
Q

Give example of primary data

A

Data gathered from experiment (e.g. questionnaire, observation)

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38
Q

Give example of secondary data

A

Government data - census

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39
Q

When is secondary data used

A

When appropriate data already exists

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40
Q

Give positive of primary data

A

Specifically addresses the purpose of the research

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41
Q

Give negative of primary data

A

Obtaining data takes time + money

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42
Q

Give 2 positives of secondary data

A
  • Cheap + easy to access

- Already had statistical testing (know significance)

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43
Q

Give negative of secondary data

A

Doesn’t necessarily address purpose of research

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44
Q

Define meta-analysis

A

Combining results from a number of studies (Secondary data) to gain an overall view on a topic

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45
Q

How can meta-analysis use qualitative approach?

A

Findings discussed

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46
Q

How can meta-analysis use quantitative approach?

A

Perform statistical analysis, including calculating effect size

47
Q

Define effect size

A

The strength of the relationship between variables (IV and DV)

48
Q

Give a positive of meta-analysis

A

Allows generalisation

49
Q

Give a negative of meta-analysis

A

Prone to publication bias (file drawer problem) where researcher only includes relevant data to fit aim in way they like

50
Q

What does observational design focus on?

A

HOW observations are made

51
Q

What are observational techniques?

A

TYPE of observation used

52
Q

Define a structured observation

A

Investigator only records specific behaviours (clearly defined in behavioural categories) using a sampling method

53
Q

When are structured observations used?

A

When investigation is BIG - can’t record everything

54
Q

Name 1 positive and 1 negative of a structured observation

A 
P = Likely to produce quantitative data (easy to compare)
N = Can limit depth of data
55
Q

Define an unstructured observation

A

Investigator records all target behaviours (usually via continuous recording)

56
Q

When is an unstructured observation used?

A

When investigation is SMALL - can easily observe all participants

57
Q

Name 1 positive and 2 negatives of an unstructured observation

A 
P = More in depth data 
N = Likely to produce qualitative data - harder to compare
N = May be observer bias - only record what catches eye
58
Q

Define behavioural categories

A

When a target behaviour (what the researcher is looking for) is broken down into observable, measurable components

59
Q

What should all behavioural categories be?

A

Clear and objective - to reduce possible bias

60
Q

Give an example of a two behavioural categories for aggression

A
  • Shaking fists

- Shouting

61
Q

Name 3 sampling methods for observations (when to get record observations)

A
  • Continuous recording
  • Event sampling
  • Time sampling
62
Q

Define continuous recording

A

All instances of target behaviour continuously recorded

63
Q

What type of observation is continuous recording used for?

A 
Unstructured observations 
(Can become complicated when there are too many complex behaviours)
64
Q

Define event sampling

A

Recording number of times an event (behavioural category) occurs in targeted group/ individual

65
Q

Name 1 positive and 1 negative of event sampling

A 
P = Good when behaviour is infrequent (So could be missed in time sampling)
N = If event is complex, may overlook details
66
Q

When are event and time sampling used?

A

Structured observations

67
Q

Define time sampling

A

Recording target behaviour occurring at a pre-established time frame (e.g. every 30 secs)

68
Q

Give 1 positive and 1 negative of time sampling

A 
P = Reduces number of observations to record (manageable)
N = May be unrepresentative of whole period
69
Q

Define inter-observer reliability

A

Extent to which there is agreement between 2 or more observers involved in observation of an experiment

70
Q

Why should there be more than one observer?

A

1 observer could lead to bias

71
Q

List 4 steps to produce inter-observer reliability

A
  1. Familiarise themselves with behavioural categories
  2. Observe at same time
  3. Compare + discuss data interpretations
  4. Analyse data (calculate I-O R)
72
Q

What is the calculation for inter-observer reliability?

A

Total no. Agreements / Total no. Observations

Score above 0.8 is good reliability

73
Q

Define self report techniques

A

Any method in which person is asked to state/ explain their own feelings/ behaviours related to a topic

74
Q

What are the two main types of self report techniques?

A
  • Questionnaires

- Interviews

75
Q

Define questionnaire

A

Pre-set list of written questions (‘items’) to which a person responds

76
Q

Give 5 positives of questionnaires

A
  • Lots of data quickly gained
  • Cost-effective
  • Can be done without researcher present
  • Usually easy to analyse
  • May be more willing to open up (less social desirability bias than interviews)
77
Q

Give 2 negatives of questionnaires

A
  • Responses may not be honest (social desirability bias)

- Response bias/ acquiescence bias

78
Q

Define social desirability bias

A

Tendency for participants to respond in a way that presents the, positively (big issue with interviews)

79
Q

Define response bias

A

Tendency for participants to respond in same way to all questions, regardless of context

80
Q

Define acquiescence bias

A

Response bias where participants always agree (yes-saying)

81
Q

How was acquiescence bias investigated?

A
  • By Jackson + Messick
  • 1961
  • Reversed questionnaire and found strong positive correlation between 2 sets of results
82
Q

Define open questions

A

Respondents provide their own data expressed in words

Tend to produce qualitative data

83
Q

Give 1 positive and 1 negative of open questions

A 
P = Not restricted responses (more valid)
N = Hard to analyse
84
Q

Define closed questions

A

Respondents have limited answer choices

Tend to produce quantitative data, but can be qualitative

85
Q

Give 1 positive and 1 negative of closed questions

A 
P = Easier to analyse
N = Restricted responses may be unrepresentative
86
Q

Define interviews

A

‘Live’ encounter between interviewer and interviewee

87
Q

What are the 3 types of interview

A

Structured, semi-structured, unstructured

88
Q

Define structured interview and give 1 positive and 1 negative

A

Pre-determined list of questions asked in fixed order
P = Standardisation reduces interviewer difference + makes it repeatable
N = Can’t elaborate (frustrating)

89
Q

Define semi- structured interview

A

Mix. Pre-determined questions but can ask follow up questions

90
Q

Define unstructured interview and give 1 positive and 1 negative

A

No set questions. General topic set but interaction is free-flowing
P = Greater flexibility - provides better insight
N = Lacks standardisation - interviewer bias and hard to replicate

91
Q

What is an issue with all interviews?

A

Social desirability bias

92
Q

What are the 3 types of closed questions on a questionnaire?

A
  • Likert scale
  • Rating scale
  • Fixed option choice
93
Q

Define likert scale

A

Respondents indicate the extent to which they agree/ disagree using a scale of 1 to 5 points, each of which are labelled with a statement, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree

94
Q

Define rating scale

A

Respondents identify a value that represents their strength of feeling towards a topic, using an unlabelled scale of 1 to 5

95
Q

Define fixed option choice

A

Respondents given a list of possible answer options and must indicate which apply to them

96
Q

Define interview schedule

A

List of questions interviewer intends to cover (must be standardised to reduce bias)

97
Q

List 5 typical interview conditions

A
  • One to one
  • Quiet room (open up more)
  • Interviewer takes notes/records
  • Begin with neutral questions (establish rapport)
  • Remind ppt. Answers are treated with confidence
98
Q

Define rapport

A

Warm, relaxed relationship of mutual understanding and acceptance

99
Q

What must be maintained when writing questions for questionnaires/interviews?

A

Clarity and neutrality

100
Q

How must clarity be maintained when writing questions?

A
  • Don’t overuse jargon (tech. Terms)
  • Don’t use double-barrelled questions
  • Don’t use double negatives
101
Q

How must neutrality be maintained when writing questions?

A
  • Don’t use emotive language

- Don’t use leading questions

102
Q

Define correlation

A

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates the strength and direction of an association between 2 co-variables

103
Q

What are correlations plotted on?

A

Scatterdiagram

104
Q

Define co-variables

A

Variables investigated within a correlation (investigating association between them, not cause and effect)

105
Q

What are the three types of correlation?

A
  • Positive
  • Negative
  • Zero
106
Q

Define positive correlation

A

Co-variables rise or fall together

107
Q

Define negative correlation

A

As one co-variable rises, the other falls

108
Q

Define zero correlation

A

No relationship between two co-variables

109
Q

Why do correlations not mean there is a casual relationship between the co-variables?

A
  • No manipulation of variables (in experiments IV manipulated/ controlled + effects on DV measured)
  • Lack of manipulation means cannot establish a cause and effect
  • Influence of EVs not controlled, so relationship may be caused by third, ‘intervening variable’
110
Q

Define intervening variable

A

Variable that can be used to explain relationship between two co-variables

111
Q

Give example of intervening variable

A

Heat in the positive relationship between ice-cream sales and death

112
Q

Give 2 positives of using correlations

A
  • Acts as good preliminary tool for experiments (strong association between two co-variables may provide hypothesis)
  • Cheap and quick (no controlled environment or manipulation of variables - can often use secondary data)
113
Q

Give 2 negatives of correlations

A
  • Third variable problem (relationship may be due to another variable)
  • No cause + effect (can’t determine direction of relationship)

A-Level Psychology (VC) (4 decks)

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