42-67 Flashcards
What are some reasons for underreporting of cybercrime?
Cybercrime is often underreported due to several factors, including a lack of awareness about victimization, uncertainty about how to report the crime, fear of personal embarrassment, and in the case of businesses, concerns about reputational damage. Many victims, particularly corporations, worry that admitting a cyber breach might harm their public image, leading to loss of customers and financial consequences.
What initiatives help increase cybercrime reporting?
Various strategies have been implemented to encourage cybercrime reporting, including the establishment of online and hotline reporting systems that make it easier for victims to file complaints. Public awareness campaigns help educate people about cyber threats and the importance of reporting. Additionally, stronger collaboration between private sector organizations and law enforcement, as well as improved outreach programs, ensure that individuals and businesses understand their options for reporting cyber incidents.
Why is cumulative data on cybercrime victims important?
When cybercrime incidents go unreported, law enforcement lacks the necessary data to recognize crime trends, allocate resources efficiently, and develop countermeasures. Accumulated data allows authorities to identify the most frequently targeted sectors, detect emerging threats, and understand the financial and social impact of cyberattacks.
How does reliable cybercrime information benefit the public?
Accurate and comprehensive cybercrime data helps governments, businesses, and individuals take informed precautions against cyber threats. It prevents the spread of misinformation, fosters public trust in cybersecurity policies, and ensures that state and private sector efforts align effectively to counteract cyber threats. Additionally, well-informed policies based on reliable data can shape realistic public expectations regarding cybersecurity threats and responses.
Why is there no one-size-fits-all approach to cybersecurity?
Cybersecurity strategies vary from country to country due to differences in regulatory frameworks, technological infrastructure, and national security priorities. Some countries emphasize strict government-led cybersecurity enforcement, while others rely on private sector cooperation. Additionally, factors such as economic development, legal systems, and political environments influence how cybersecurity is managed on a national level.
What is Malaysia’s regulatory body for personal data protection?
Malaysia’s Personal Data Protection Act (PDPA) is enforced by the Personal Data Protection Commissioner, an authority within the Ministry of Information, Culture, and Communications. The Commissioner oversees the implementation of data protection laws, ensures compliance by organizations that process personal data, and has the power to impose penalties on entities that fail to follow regulations.
What is the role of Data Protection Agencies (DPA) in the EU?
Each European Union (EU) member state has a Data Protection Agency (DPA) responsible for overseeing compliance with data protection laws, investigating data breaches, and enforcing penalties for violations. These agencies operate independently and have the authority to regulate both private companies and government entities. DPAs also ensure compliance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which mandates strict controls over personal data processing and privacy protection.
Why does the government play a strong role in cybersecurity?
Governments have a vested interest in cybersecurity due to their reliance on technology for national defense, critical infrastructure, and public services. Cyber threats pose significant risks to national security, economic stability, and citizens’ personal information. Additionally, governments have the ability to coordinate large-scale cybersecurity initiatives, enforce regulations, and engage in international cooperation to combat cyber threats more effectively.
Which agency oversees personal data protection in Canada?
In Canada, the Office of the Privacy Commissioner (OPC) is responsible for enforcing the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA). The OPC monitors data privacy violations, investigates complaints, and provides guidance on best practices for data protection. The agency reports to Parliament, ensuring that Canadian citizens’ privacy rights are safeguarded.
What is NICE, and what is its goal?
The National Institute for Cybersecurity Education (NICE) is a U.S. government initiative aimed at developing a highly skilled cybersecurity workforce. Its primary goal is to increase cybersecurity awareness, provide specialized training, and enhance career opportunities in cybersecurity fields. NICE collaborates with educational institutions, government agencies, and private sector organizations to create standardized training programs and promote cybersecurity as a viable career path.
How does NICE recruit cybersecurity professionals?
NICE uses a multi-pronged strategy to attract cybersecurity talent. This includes public awareness campaigns to encourage students to pursue cybersecurity careers, partnerships with universities to integrate cybersecurity courses into curricula, and collaboration with the private sector to create internship and apprenticeship opportunities. The initiative also provides continuous professional development for current cybersecurity professionals.
Why is recruiting young cybersecurity talent important?
Many cybercriminals and hacktivists are young individuals with strong technical skills but limited career direction. By offering structured educational and career pathways, governments and private organizations can redirect this talent toward ethical hacking, cybersecurity research, and law enforcement roles. Engaging young people early through competitions, scholarships, and mentoring programs can help build a robust and proactive cybersecurity workforce.
What cybersecurity recruitment challenge do governments face?
One of the biggest challenges governments face in cybersecurity recruitment is competition with the private sector. Many skilled cybersecurity professionals prefer private industry jobs due to higher salaries and better benefits. Additionally, governments must find ways to attract individuals with advanced technical skills while ensuring that national security standards are met. Another challenge is persuading ethical hackers to transition from independent security research into government positions.
What are two basic strategies for critical systems protection?
The two primary strategies for securing critical infrastructure systems are online defense mechanisms and air-gapping. Online defense mechanisms include firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), and real-time threat monitoring. These solutions aim to protect networks while keeping them connected to the internet. Air-gapping, on the other hand, involves physically isolating critical systems from external networks, making them nearly impervious to remote cyberattacks.
What is the purpose of Einstein?
Einstein serves as a critical cybersecurity tool for the U.S. government, providing early detection of cyber threats, automated analysis of attack patterns, and real-time alerts for security teams. It helps prevent unauthorized access to government systems and improves national cybersecurity resilience.
What is the US government’s intrusion detection system called?
The United States government uses Einstein, an advanced intrusion detection and prevention system that continuously monitors federal networks for potential cyber threats. Einstein analyzes network traffic in real-time, detects suspicious activities, and helps government agencies respond to cyber threats more effectively.
What is cyber hygiene, and why is it important?
Cyber hygiene refers to fundamental cybersecurity practices that individuals and organizations follow to protect themselves from cyber threats. These include using strong passwords, enabling multi-factor authentication (MFA), regularly updating software, and being cautious about phishing attempts. Studies suggest that maintaining good cyber hygiene can prevent up to 85% of cyber intrusions, making it one of the most cost-effective cybersecurity strategies.
What is an air-gapped network?
An air-gapped network is a security measure in which a computer or network is physically isolated from external connections, including the internet. This method is used to protect critical systems such as nuclear power plants, military networks, and financial institutions from cyberattacks. While air-gapping provides strong security, it can also reduce operational efficiency and make software updates more challenging.
What is the purpose of Einstein?
Einstein is an advanced intrusion detection and prevention system used by the U.S. government to protect federal networks. It conducts real-time surveillance to detect and block cyber threats before they can infiltrate government systems. The system analyzes network traffic, identifies suspicious activity, and alerts cybersecurity teams. Einstein also provides automated responses to mitigate threats and prevent unauthorized access, making it a key tool in national cybersecurity infrastructure.
What should cybersecurity policies balance?
Effective cybersecurity policies must balance multiple priorities, including:
/Security – Implementing strong measures to protect data, infrastructure, and national interests.
/Privacy – Ensuring that individuals’ personal data and online activities remain confidential.
/Economic Growth – Allowing businesses and technology sectors to innovate without excessive regulatory burdens.
/Government Transparency – Avoiding overly strict security policies that limit access to information or infringe on civil liberties.
Striking the right balance is challenging, as governments must address cyber threats while also protecting individual rights and promoting economic development.
What is cyber hygiene, and why is it important?
Cyber hygiene refers to a set of basic cybersecurity practices that individuals and organizations follow to protect their digital assets from cyber threats. Good cyber hygiene includes using strong passwords, enabling multi-factor authentication (MFA), keeping software updated, regularly backing up data, and avoiding suspicious links or attachments. Cybersecurity experts estimate that up to 85% of cyber intrusions could be prevented by following proper cyber hygiene, as most attacks exploit basic security vulnerabilities. Implementing these practices helps reduce the risk of malware infections, data breaches, and identity theft.
Why is “security at all costs” an ineffective policy?
A “security at all costs” approach is ineffective because it prioritizes cybersecurity over fundamental rights and freedoms, such as privacy, transparency, and innovation. Overly strict security policies can lead to:
/Mass surveillance – Governments may justify excessive data collection, which infringes on individual privacy.
/Business restrictions – Over-regulation can stifle innovation and economic growth in the tech industry.
/Reduced public trust – People may resist security measures that feel intrusive or authoritarian.
A balanced approach considers security alongside ethical, economic, and legal factors, ensuring cybersecurity policies protect, rather than restrict, society.
What is the primary cybersecurity issue for the private sector?
The biggest challenge for private companies is ensuring compliance with cybersecurity standards while protecting critical infrastructure from cyber threats. Many industries, including finance, healthcare, and energy, rely on complex digital systems that are attractive targets for cybercriminals. However, businesses often struggle with maintaining security due to:
/Lack of investment in security technologies.
/Shortage of skilled cybersecurity professionals.
/Regulatory uncertainty, where companies must follow multiple, sometimes conflicting security standards.
To address this, businesses must prioritize cybersecurity investment and collaborate with governments and security experts.
What is the dilemma in government-private sector cybersecurity cooperation?
The primary dilemma is finding the right balance between government regulation and market freedom. Governments aim to enforce cybersecurity standards, while businesses prefer self-regulation to avoid unnecessary restrictions. Key concerns include:
/Too much regulation – Can increase operational costs and slow innovation.
/Too little oversight – Leaves businesses vulnerable to cyberattacks that could affect entire industries.
/Information sharing issues – Companies fear sharing security breach data with governments due to concerns over legal liability and public perception.
Effective cybersecurity partnerships require mutual trust, incentives for compliance, and clear guidelines.
What problem arises from companies self-regulating cybersecurity?
Many businesses, especially small and medium enterprises (SMEs), underinvest in cybersecurity because they view it as an unnecessary expense until a breach occurs. Without government mandates, companies may:
/Delay adopting cybersecurity best practices.
/Fail to prioritize employee security training.
/Ignore vulnerabilities until they result in data breaches or ransomware attacks. While some industries enforce security through internal policies, widespread self-regulation often leads to inconsistencies and gaps in national cybersecurity resilience.
Why do companies often prefer private justice over public law enforcement?
Businesses frequently handle cybersecurity breaches internally rather than reporting them to authorities. This is because:
/Reporting an attack may damage their reputation, leading to loss of customer trust and stock value.
/Cyber incidents can expose weaknesses in their security infrastructure.
/Investigations take time and may not lead to immediate resolutions. Instead, many companies choose to hire private cybersecurity firms to investigate breaches, recover stolen data, and strengthen security, avoiding public legal proceedings.
What is an alternative to reaction-based cybersecurity?
Cyber deterrence focuses on preventing cyberattacks before they happen. Strategies include:
/Public education and awareness programs to reduce human error (e.g., phishing scams).
/Government incentives for businesses to improve security practices.
/Threat intelligence sharing between private companies and law enforcement.
/Stronger international cooperation to disrupt cybercriminal networks. These strategies make cybercrime less attractive and harder to execute.
What is the main limitation of reactive cybersecurity strategies?
Reactive cybersecurity strategies focus on responding to cyberattacks after they happen rather than preventing them. The limitations include:
/Damage is already done – Once an attack occurs, data may be lost or compromised.
/Cybercriminals evolve quickly, making reactive defenses ineffective against new attack methods.
/Legal and investigative delays – Identifying and prosecuting cybercriminals can take years, and many operate in jurisdictions beyond law enforcement reach. A proactive approach is essential for effective cybersecurity.
What is a crucial component of crime prevention?
Cybercrime prevention relies on making attacks less appealing by:
/Increasing risks for criminals (better law enforcement cooperation, stronger penalties).
/Reducing rewards (improved encryption, security awareness).
/Hardening defenses (up-to-date security technologies).
A multi-layered defense approach makes cybercrime less profitable and harder to execute.
Why do small businesses often neglect cybersecurity?
Many small and medium-sized businesses (SMBs) believe they are too small to be targeted by cybercriminals. However, hackers often exploit SMBs’ weak security to:
/Steal customer financial data.
/Compromise business emails for fraud.
/Use SMBs as entry points into larger corporate networks. Because SMBs have limited budgets and expertise, they tend to postpone cybersecurity investments, making them easy targets.
Why is international cooperation crucial for cybercrime enforcement?
Cybercrime is inherently borderless, meaning attacks can be launched from one country while targeting victims in another. This creates significant challenges for law enforcement because:
1Jurisdictional limitations – Law enforcement agencies cannot operate outside their own country’s legal boundaries.
2Different legal frameworks – Cybercrime laws vary by country, making it difficult to prosecute criminals operating across borders.
3Difficulty in gathering evidence – Digital evidence may be stored in multiple countries, requiring legal cooperation to obtain access.
4Cybercriminal safe havens – Some nations lack strong cybercrime laws or refuse to extradite criminals.
Effective international cooperation involves mutual legal assistance, intelligence sharing, and joint cybercrime task forces.
What treaty is widely used for cybercrime cooperation?
The Budapest Convention on Cybercrime (also known as the Council of Europe Cybercrime Convention) is the first and most comprehensive international treaty designed to address cybercrime. It was established in 2001 and aims to:
/Harmonize cybercrime laws across countries.
/Promote cooperation among law enforcement agencies.
/Facilitate extradition of cybercriminals between signatory nations.
/Standardize procedures for preserving and sharing digital evidence.
The treaty is recognized by over 65 countries, including the United States, Canada, and many European nations, but some major players like China and Russia have not signed it, limiting its global effectiveness.
What are the main challenges in international cybercrime enforcement?
Key obstacles in global cybercrime enforcement include:
/Jurisdiction conflicts – Countries have different laws on what constitutes cybercrime and how it should be prosecuted.
/Lack of trust between nations – Countries are often reluctant to share sensitive cybersecurity data due to political and security concerns.
/Slow legal processes – Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (MLATs) often take months or even years to process, delaying crucial investigations.
/Encrypted communication technologies – Cybercriminals use encryption and anonymization tools like VPNs and the dark web, making it harder for investigators to trace their activities.
Why is international cybercrime prosecution difficult?
Prosecuting cybercriminals on an international scale is complex due to:
/Sovereignty issues – Nations may be unwilling to allow foreign law enforcement to operate within their territory.
/Legal inconsistencies – Some countries have weak cybercrime laws, allowing criminals to operate freely.
/Limited extradition agreements – Many countries do not have treaties to extradite cybercriminals.
/Cybercriminals using multiple locations – Attackers often use multiple IP addresses, VPNs, and botnets to cover their tracks, making prosecution more challenging.
/Political factors – Some cybercriminals are state-sponsored hackers, and their home countries may refuse to prosecute them due to diplomatic reasons.
What is the limitation of MLATs in cybercrime investigations?
Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (MLATs) are formal agreements between countries that allow them to request and exchange legal evidence. However, in cybercrime cases, MLATs have several drawbacks:
/Time-consuming process – It can take months to approve a single request, by which time evidence may be deleted or outdated.
/Different legal standards – Some countries do not recognize certain cybercrimes, making cooperation difficult.
/Data storage in multiple jurisdictions – A single investigation may require data from several countries, each with different privacy and security laws.
/Lack of enforcement power – Even if a country provides evidence, it may not agree to extradite the suspect or prosecute them effectively.
What is the key issue with current cybersecurity treaties?
The biggest issue with existing cybersecurity treaties is that they are limited in scope and lack global enforcement mechanisms. Key challenges include:
/Not all countries participate – Some treaties only involve regional cooperation, leaving many nations out.
/No universal definition of cybercrime – Different countries classify cyber offenses in different ways.
/Enforcement challenges – Even if a treaty is signed, compliance is voluntary, and there are no penalties for non-cooperation.
/Lack of adaptation to new cyber threats – Existing treaties do not address modern threats like ransomware-as-a-service (RaaS), AI-driven attacks, or cryptocurrency-based cybercrime.
Why is an international cybersecurity treaty needed?
A global cybersecurity treaty would help establish clear legal definitions, improve cooperation, and enhance enforcement efforts. Benefits of a unified treaty include:
/Standardized cybercrime laws across all participating nations.
/Improved evidence-sharing mechanisms for faster investigations.
/More efficient extradition processes for cybercriminals.
/Encouragement for nations to invest in cybersecurity infrastructure.
Without a universal treaty, cybercriminals continue to exploit legal loopholes and operate across borders without fear of prosecution.
Why do some countries resist global cybersecurity treaties?
Countries resist cybersecurity treaties for various reasons, including:
/Concerns about national sovereignty – Governments want to retain control over their own cyber policies.
/Different views on internet governance – Nations like China and Russia advocate for state-controlled internet regulation, while the U.S. and EU favor an open internet model.
/Economic and political interests – Some governments may hesitate to support a treaty that impacts their cyber capabilities or intelligence operations.
/Fear of exposing vulnerabilities – Countries worry that cybersecurity collaboration could reveal state secrets or weaknesses in their infrastructure.
What approach do the US and EU differ on regarding cybersecurity?
The United States and the European Union take different approaches to cybersecurity regulation:
U.S. approach (Market-driven security):
/Prefers private-sector-led cybersecurity measures.
/Focuses on voluntary security standards rather than strict government mandates.
/Opposes heavy-handed regulation, believing it may stifle innovation.
——-
EU approach (Regulatory security model):
Implements strict data protection laws like the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).
/Requires companies to comply with mandatory cybersecurity rules.
/Focuses on consumer data privacy and corporate accountability.
T/he EU’s approach prioritizes strong regulation, while the U.S. favors self-regulation and industry-driven solutions.
Why is traditional law enforcement ineffective against cybercrime?
Traditional law enforcement methods are designed for physical crimes, making them less effective against cybercrime. Challenges include:
/Cybercrime is borderless, while law enforcement agencies operate within geographical boundaries.
/Criminals use encryption and anonymization, making it hard to track them.
/Digital evidence is fragile and can be deleted, altered, or hidden.
/Legal systems are slow, while cybercriminals adapt quickly to new technologies.
What strategy is replacing traditional crime enforcement for cybercrime?
A preventative and intelligence-driven approach is replacing traditional crime enforcement. This includes:
/Public-private partnerships – Businesses and governments work together on cybersecurity.
/Threat intelligence sharing – Real-time exchange of cyber threat data.
/Automated threat detection – AI and machine learning improve cyber defenses.
/International cyber task forces – Law enforcement agencies coordinate globally to track cybercriminals.
Why is digital evidence difficult to obtain for law enforcement?
Digital evidence poses challenges due to:
/Encryption and secure communication tools used by cybercriminals.
/Cloud storage making evidence hard to locate across multiple jurisdictions.
/Data volatility – Digital logs can be deleted within seconds.
What is a major issue with cloud-based evidence in cybercrime cases?
Cloud-based evidence often resides in multiple countries, requiring cross-border legal cooperation to access, which can delay investigations.
What do effective international cybercrime investigations require?
Successful investigations require:
/Fast data-sharing mechanisms.
/Better cross-border legal frameworks.
/Stronger cooperation between public and private sectors.
