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A Level Biology > 4.1.1 Communicable Diseases > Flashcards

4.1.1 Communicable Diseases Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the pathogens that cause diseases?

A

Bacteria
Fungi
Viruses
Protoctista

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2
Q

What is a communicable disease?

A

A disease that can be passed from one organism to another

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3
Q

cell features of a bacterial pathogen?

A

No membrane bound nucleus or organelles
Plasmid DNA
Cell walls and cell shape

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4
Q

What the the 2 ways bacteria are classified?

A
  • by their basic shapes

- by their cell walls

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5
Q

What does a gram positive bacteria look like under the light microscope?

A

Looks purple/ blue under the light microscope

Eg MRSA

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6
Q

What do gram negative bacteria look like under the microscope?

A

Appear red under the light microscope

Eg E.Coli

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7
Q

How do protoctista speak communicable disease?

A

A eukaryotic cell or group of cells grouped into a colony. The protists that cause disease are parasitic and may need a vector to transfer the disease

Eg malaria carried through mosquitoes which carry plasmodium

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8
Q

How do fungi cause / spread communicable disease?

A

Parasitic fungi can carry communicable disease, spreads rapidly and widely through crop plants, normally spread through spores

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9
Q

What is a virus?

A

A non living infectious agent 0.02 to 0.3 manometers

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10
Q

What is the basic structure of a virus?

A

Genetic material surrounded by a protein and/or a lipid

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11
Q

How do viruses work?

A

Viruses invade living cells where the genetic material of the virus will take over the biochemistry of the host to replicate new virus cells. These reproduce rapidly and evolve with adaptations which makes them very successful pathogens

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12
Q

What are the most frequent modes of transmission for communicable disease?

A 
Direct contact
Droplet 
Airbourne
Vector 
Common article
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13
Q

What is direct transmission?

A 
Physical contact
Faecal or oral transmission 
Droplet 
Spores
Bodily fluids
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14
Q

Why is climate change dangerous for diseases?

A

A warm climate equals more disease as the temperature will be better suited for growth of pathogens

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15
Q

What social factors can worsen a diseases impact?

A

Poorer countries are impacted the most, less money, lower healthcare standard

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16
Q

What are examples of non specific defence systems?

A 
Nasal passages- mucus 
Eyes contain lysosyme enzyme
Skin = physical barrier
Bladder - periodic flow of urine
Trachea- mucus and cilia 
Stomach acid - high pH
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17
Q

How does the skin protect against communicable disease?

A

Sweat released from sweat glands contains lysosyme enzyme which breaks down the cell walls of some bacteria

Comensal bacteria suppress the growth of new harmful bacteria

Sebum secretes from oil glands which contain fatty acids which inhibit bacteria growth and lower pH

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18
Q

How does the respiratory system protect against pathogens?

A

Mucus traps microorganisms

Cilia waft mucus towards mouth where it is swallowed

Go let cells

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19
Q

How do the gastric glands act to protect the body?

A

Hydrochloride acid destroys bacteria and bacterial toxins as it has a low pH of pH2

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20
Q

How does the production ad flow of urine protect the body?

A

Minimises bacterial colonisation, microorganisms are continually flushed from the system

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21
Q

Why are vector pathogens more dangerous

A

pathogens that travel by vector bypass the first line of defence eg malaria

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22
Q

What are the non specific responses?

A

The inflammatory response

Phagocytosis

Blood clotting

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23
Q

Explain the inflammatory process?

A

Bacteria enter the tissues where they multiply and cause tissue damage

  • mast cell (wbc) together with damaged tissues release the chemical histimane into surrounding tissues; this histamine then diffuses to nearby arterioles and capillaries
  • histamine acts on local arterioles and causes them to dilate, increasing blood flow to the area and therefore bringing additional phagocytic wbc to the area
  • histamine also causes the capillaries to become leaky and fluid normally in plasma moves to tissue spaces
  • neutrophils migrate to the infected area by chemotaxis and squeeze through the capillary walls into the tissues
  • the neutrophils phagocytise the bacteria and destroy them
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24
Q

What are the symptoms of the Inflammatory process?

A

Redness from more blood flow

Heat more warm blood

Swelling from an increase in the permeability of capillaries allows more blood to enter and leave tissue spaces

Pain - from increased pressure on cells from swelling and the release of kinins stimulates pain receptors in tissues

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25
Q

Explain the process of phagocytosis?

A

Contact and binding between bacterium and phagocyte

  • formation of pseudopodia by the phagocyte and the ingestion of the bacteria through endocytosis
  • the formation of a phagosome, during endocytosis, the portion of the white cells plasma membrane that surrounds the bacteria pinched off to form a phagosome within the cytoplasm
  • a lysosome fuses with the phagosome to form a large vesicle called a phagolysosome
  • a lysosome provides the degradtive enzymes that are involved in digestion of bacteria, lysosome degrades bacterial cell walls and digestive enzymes degrade carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleonics acids; hydrogen peroxide produced by the phagolysosome aids the destruction of bacterium
  • products of the digestion are absorbed into the cytoplasm of the phagocyte whilst substances that cannot be degraded remain within the vesicle and form a residual body. The residual body moves towards the plasma membrane and released its contents by exocytosis
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26
Q

What are the 3 blood clotting mechanisms?

A

Vascular spasm

Platelet plug formation

Blood clotting through coagulation

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27
Q

How does vascular spasm work?

A

Smooth muscles in the walls of damaged damaged vessels contract and this reduces blood flow for a short time until the other mechanisms become active

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28
Q

What is platelet plug formation and how does it work?

A

Platelet are cell fragments formed from a large bone marrow cells, they are ‘pinched off’ portions of these cells and they lack a nucleus; platelets become sticky when they contact damaged areas of blood vessels and underlying tissues and begin to aggregate together, forming a plug that quickly releases chemicals to initiate the blood clotting mechanism

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29
Q

What is coagulation?

A

The formation of a blood clot requires a number of plasma proteins and enzymes that transform the blood plasma into solid gel that traps red blood cells and plugs the damaged blood vessels

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30
Q

What triggers the blood clotting process?

A

When damaged platelets and tissues release the enzyme thromboplastin. In the presence of calcium ions, thromboplastin catalysed the conversion of inactive prothrombin into active enzyme thrombin

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31
Q

What are cytokines?

A

Phagocytes they have engulfed a pathogen produce chemicals called cytokines. Cytokines act as a cell signalling molecule informing other phagocytes that the body is under attack and stimulates them to move to the site of infection or inflammation. Cytokines can also increase body temp and stimulate the specific immune system

32
Q

What are opsonins?

A

Opsonins are chemicals that bind to pathogens and “tag” them so that they can be more easily recognised by phagocytes. Phagocytes have receptors on their cell membranes that bind to common opsonins and the phagocytes then engulfs the pathogen, there are a number of different opsonins, but antibodies such as immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) have the strongest effect

33
Q

What is the structure of an antibody?

A

Antibodies are composed of four polypeptides, two identical heavy chains (large peptide units) that are partially bound to each other in a Y formation, held together by disulphide bridges. This Y formation is flanked by two identical lighter chains (small peptide units)

34
Q

What is an antigen presenting cell and what does it do?

A

An antigen presenting cell is an immune cell that detects, engulfs and informs the adaptive immune response about an infection. When a pathogen is detected then APCs will phagocytise the pathogen and digest it to form many fragments of the antigen. Antigen fragments are then transported to the surface of the APC where they will serve as an indicator to other immune cells.

35
Q

What is a macrophage?

A

A macrophage is a large white blood cell that is an important part of the immune system. A macrophage has the ability to locate and “eat” particles such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites using phagocytosis. APC cells display antigens with MHC on their surfaces, this is the antigen presentation.

36
Q

What are lymphocytes?

A

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell found in the blood and the lymph nodes. Lymphocytes recognise antigen molecules on the surface of pathogens and coordinate the immune response against them.

37
Q

What are the 2 main types of lymphocytes?

A
  • B lymphocytes; form in bone marrow

- T lymphocytes; form in thysus

38
Q

There are 4 types of T cells, what are they?

A

T helper cells

T killer cells

T memory cells

T regulator cells

39
Q

What do T helper cells do?

A

These cells produce interleukins, a type of cytokines, this stimulates B cell and antibody production and attracts the other T cells and antibodies

40
Q

What do T killer cells do?

A

T killer cells kill pathogens by producing a chemical called performing which makes holes in pathogens cell plasma membranes.

41
Q

What do T memory cells do?

A

These act as an immunological memory, as they remain in the blood for long period of time. When a second infection occurs, they divide rapidly to form many killer T cells.

42
Q

What do T regulator cells do?

A

These prevent an auto immune response by repressing the immune system after all the pathogens have been destroyed.

43
Q

What are the 3 forms of B lymphocytes?

A

Plasma cells

B effector cells

B memory cells

44
Q

What do plasma cells do?

A

Produce specific antibodies to and invading antigen, these only live for a few days but produce up to 2000 antibodies per second when active

45
Q

B effector cells, what do they do?

A

These divide to form plasma cell clones

46
Q

What do B memory cells do?

A

These remain in the blood for long periods of time, providing immunological memory. If infection occurs, these reproduce rapidly and produce the same specific antigen.

47
Q

What is cell mediated immunity?

A

A response to cells that have been infected by pathogens, Mainly viruses

48
Q

How does cell mediates immunity work?

A

1 Macrophages engulf and digest pathogens by phagocytosis, they present the antigens on the cells surface.
2 Specific T helper cells with receptor that fits the antigen, a macrophage will bind. The T helper cells will produce the interleukins which stimulates the production of other T cells.
3 Cloned T cells may become more T helper cells, T killer cells or T memory cells that will help to destroy infective pathogens in future.

49
Q

What is humoral immunity?

A

Response to pathogens that are found in blood stream, mainly fungal or bacterial

50
Q

How does humoral immunity work?

A

1 Antibodies are produced that are soluble in the blood, tissue fluid and lymph fluid.
2 B cells are more important to humoral immunity
3 B cells have different antibodies on their surface and will bind to complementary antigens on the pathogens membrane.
4 The B cell will engulf the pathogen and present the antigen on its surface becoming an APC
5 T helper cells bind to the antigens on the presenting B cell, this is clonal selection
6 Interleukins produced by a T helper cell activate other B cells.
7 The B cells rapidly divide by mitosis to produce many different B cells, this is clonal expansion
8 These cloned plasma cells produce specific complementary antibodies to bind to the pathogens antigen disabling them, of causing agglutination or neutralisation

51
Q

What is agglutination?

A

Where one antibody binds to 2 pathogens = clumping together.

Pathogens are more easily engulfed by phagocytosis

52
Q

What is neutralisation?

A

Antibodies can act as antitoxins, binding with toxins produced by pathogens, this makes them harmless.

53
Q

How do antibodies defend the body?

A

1 The antibody of the antigen-antibody complex acts as an opsonin, so the complex is easily engulfed and digested by phagocytes.

  1. Most pathogens can no longer effectively invade the host cells once they are part of an antigen-antibody complex.
  2. Antibodies act as agglutinins causing pathogens carrying antigen-antibody complexes to clump together. This helps to prevent them spreading through the body and makes it easier for phagocytes to engulf a number of pathogens at the same time.
  3. Antibodies can act as antitoxins, binding to the toxins produced by pathogens and making them harmless.
54
Q

What is an autoimmune disease?

A

When the immune system stops recognising ‘self’ cells and starts to attack healthy body tissues.

55
Q

What are potential treatments for autoimmune diseases?

A

Immunosuppressant drugs which prevent the immune system working maybe used as treatments but they deprive the body of its natural defences against communicable diseases.

56
Q

Where does type 1 diabetes affect?

Is there a treatment?

A

It affects the insulin secreting pancreas cells

Treatments include insulin injections, pancreas transplants and immunosuppressant drugs.

57
Q

Rheumatoid arthritis, where does it affect and are there any treatments?

A

Joints, hands, knees, ankles, wrists and feet.

There is no cure, can be treated with anti inflammatory drugs, steroids, pain relief and immunosuppressants

58
Q

Where does lupus affect? Is there any treatment?

A

affects skin joints, causes fatigue and can affect can attack any organ in the body

There is no cure, can be treated with anti inflammatories, steroids, immunosuppressants, and various other drugs

59
Q

What is immunity?

A

The ability of an organism to resist a particular infection or toxin by the action of specific antibodies or by sensitised white blood cells.

60
Q

What is active immunity?

A

The immunity which results from the production of antibodies by the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen

61
Q

What is passive immunity?

A

The short term immunity which results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal.

62
Q

What is natural immunity?

A

Immunity that is naturally present, and Is not due to prior sensitisation to an antigen from an infection or vaccination.

63
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

The resistance to the spread of a contagious disease within a population that results of a sufficiently high proportion of individuals are immune to the disease, especially through vaccination

64
Q

What is artificial active immunity?

A

The immune system is stimulated to make its own antibodies to a safe form of the antigen, which is injected into the blood stream

65
Q

How can the pathogen be made safe ready for injection?

A

Killed or inactivated bacteria and virus can be used

Annenuated (weakened) strains of bacteria can be used

Toxin molecules that have been altered and detoxified can be used

Isolated antigens extracted from the pathogen can be used

Genetically engineered antigens can be used

66
Q

What is the vaccination process?

A

A small amount of the safe vaccine is injected into the blood.

Primary immune response is triggered by a foreign antigen and your body produces antibodies and memory cells as if you were infected with the live pathogen.

If you did come into contact with the live pathogen, the secondary immune response is triggered by this and you destroy the pathogen rapidly before suffering the symptoms

67
Q

What are the stages of the development cycle?

A

Exploratory stage

Preclinical stage

Clinical development

Regulatory review and approval

Manufacturing

Quality control

68
Q

What is the source and action for penecillin?

A

Commercial extraction originally from mould on melons

It acts as an antibiotic

69
Q

Docetaxel / paclitaxel source and action?

A

Originally derived from yew trees, and a treatment for breast cancer

70
Q

Aspirin, source and action?

A

Based on compounds from willow bark.

Painkiller, anticoagulant, antipyretic (fever), anti inflammatory.

71
Q

Prialt source and action?

A

Derived from the venom of a cone snail from oceans around Australia

It’s a new painkiller, 1000x more effective than morphine

72
Q

Vancomycin, source and action?

A

Derived from a soil fungus

One of the most powerful antibiotics

73
Q

Digoxin, source and action?

A

Based on digitoxin, originally extracted from foxgloves.

Powerful heart drug used to treat atrial fibrillation and heart failure.

74
Q

What is pharmacogenetics?

A

The science of interweaving knowledge of drug actions with personalised genetic material

75
Q

How did antibiotic resistance occur?

A

Bacteria reproduce rapidly, if a mutation occurs during replication then, this can cause antibiotic resistance. This mutation is copied throughout the new population and this makes the population more resistant to existing antibiotics.

76
Q

How can antibiotic resistant infections be reduced in the long term?

A

Minimising the use of antibiotics and making sure that every course of antibiotics is completed to reduce the risk of resistant individuals surviving and reproducing

Good hygiene in hospitals, care homes and In general to prevent spread of infections

A Level Biology (22 decks)

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