4.1 - Causes of Chinese Revolution Flashcards
1
Q
Chinese Culture
A
- Confucianism – relations built on respect for elders, but those in power expected to care for those below them
- Daoism – believes that natural order of things should not be disrupted so social order should be accepted
- Buddhism – provided hope
2
Q
Chinese Geography
A
- 9.6 million km2
- Diverse climate – tropical South; North subject to drought
- Divided into provinces → regionalism
- Mountain ranges cover 60% of the country
- Only 20% of land suitable for farming
- Majority of population live along coast or Yellow or Yangzi Rivers → problem of flooding
- Diverse population – 10% of the population comprises 55 ethnic groups
3
Q
Social Hierarchy - Peasants
A
o 80% of population
o Valued due to the food that they produced – some of the most productive farmers in the world
o Lived in simple villages
o Worked hours of backbreaking work, and on major government construction projects
o Population growth → shortages of land → increased land prices → increased poverty and farmers forced to rent land
1930 – peasants made up 70% of population but only owned 17% of land
o Average life expectancy only 25 years old
o Poverty closed off opportunities for social advancement → discontent
4
Q
Social Hierarchy - Townspeople
A
o Included merchants, soldiers, tradespeople and labourers
o Wealth varied greatly
o Merchants at bottom of social hierarchy because they benefitted from others’ work
o Soldiers lacked respect
5
Q
Social Hierarchy - Landlords and Officials
A
o Rented land to tenant farmers
o 1850 – 60% of land owned by wealthy Chinese
o Acted as informal local administrators → took advantage of peasantry
o Corruption rife
6
Q
Social Hierarchy - Women
A
o Least valued group – couldn’t hold official position, often did not have names, allowed to die of neglect when food was scarce
7
Q
Mandate of Heaven
A
- Emperor seen as the representative of divine power → demanded obedience
- Emperor reviewed petitions and composed new laws
- If emperor ruled wisely and remained virtuous, peace was guaranteed
- If emperor ruled unwisely and without virtue, disapproval was shown through natural disasters
- A successful coup or rebellion was not immoral as heaven had approved
8
Q
Sun Yixian
A
- One of the most important leaders of the Chinese revolutionary movement up to 1912
- Educated in the USA → saw the benefits of a modern, democratic government
- Believed that the imperial system was outdated and needed to be overthrown, and that modernisation was only possible in China adopted Western-style political and economic institutions
- Formed the Revive China Society (1894) – developed plans for an uprising in Guangzhou but uprising failed → Sun fled to Japan
- Kidnapped by Qing Authorities (1896) while in London → increased support for revolutionary cause
- Developed Three Principles of the People
- Believed democracy could be achieved through 3 phrases:
o Military dictatorship
o Tutelage period where democratic procedures would be explained and trialled
o New constitution drawn up, elections held, and military government disbanded - Created Tongmenghui:
o Coalition of revolutionary groups
o Minbao (People’s Paper) smuggled into China
o 10,000 members by 1906
o Sponsored 3 of 4 rebellions (1908-11), but none succeeded - Soldiers that took part in revolution were sympathetic to Sun’s political rhetoric, despite him being in the USA
9
Q
Three Principles of the People
A
- Nationalism – domination by foreign powers had to end and Manchus should be ousted
- People’s Livelihood – improve welfare of workers, regulate ownership of land, increase state influence in industry, and create a fairer tax system
- Democracy – modelled on Western style system
10
Q
Xinhai Revolution
A
- Officers connected to Tongmenghui had been plotting an uprising → begin to rebel when Qing authorities investigate → rebels take control of Hubei province, and this spreads quickly to 24 provinces within 6 weeks
- Sun Yixian returns to China and becomes a leading figure → Provisional Government proclaimed 29 Dec 1911, with Sun becoming President on 1 Jan 1912
- Provisional Government based in Nanjing
11
Q
Background on Yuan Shikai
A
- Yuan Shikai was a general in the Modernised Beijing Army
- Appointed Commander in Chief of Qing Military in 1911, and received a cabinet position
- Yuan marched to restore order during Xinhai Revolution, but began to negotiate with revolutionaries
- Sun agreed to step down as President due to his beliefs on creating a military dictatorship, with Yuan becoming the new President if he could get the Qing Emperor (5 year old Pu Yi) to abdicate
- Pu Yi abdicated 12 Feb 1912
12
Q
Yuan’s Government
A
- Willing to reform – projects included:
o Reform to legal system
o Suppression of opium farming
o Encouraging of primary education
o Centralising the national economy
o Irrigation and flood control to increase crop yields - Appointed loyal commanders as provincial governors
- Not interested in creating a democratic republic
- Sun Yixian made Minister of Railways in Yuan’s Government
13
Q
Guomindang
A
- Sun Yixian remained leader of republicans, but Song Jiaoren now responsible for day to day political matters
- Song aimed to transform Tongmenghui into a modern political party – achieved this by merging with 4 other small parties to create the Guomindang
- 1913 – Guomindang won a majority of seats and Song became Prime Minister
- Song hoped to restrict Yuan’s use of executive powers by encouraging the development of a ‘responsible’ ministry and parliamentary opposition
- However, Song lacked the power to make these changes
14
Q
Yuan’s Dictatorship
A
- Yuan still controlled the military
- Government relocated to Yuan’s stronghold of Beijing
- 1912 – 4 Guomindang members of Yuan’s cabinet pressured to resign, and replaced with loyalists
- Song assassinated in March 1913
- Apr 1913 – Yuan secured a ‘Reorganisation Loan’ of $100m from foreign banks → Guomindang members attempted to impeach Yuan as this violated their policy of nationalism, but they were forced to back down
- July 1913 – Jiangxi declared independence → 6 other provinces rebelling one month after as a ‘second revolution’ but Yuan easily put down the revolution
- Yuan used this as an excuse to increase his power:
o Nov 1913 – Guomindang banned
o Jan 1914 – Parliaments dissolved
o May 1914 – term limit extended from 5 to 10 years; Yuan granted dictatorial powers over military, diplomacy and finance
15
Q
Twenty One Demands
A
- Jan 1915 – in return for loans to China, Japan provides ultimatum in the 21 Demands, including:
o Rights to economic development in Manchuria and Mongolia
o Control over mining in central China
o Control over Liaodong Peninsula
o Right to appoint Japanese advisers to Chinese Government - 7 May 1915 – Yuan accepted all demands except for Japanese advisers → patriotic protests and ‘day of shame’ in China
16
Q
Yuan’s Emperorship
A
- Jan 1916 – Yuan assumed title as Emperor ‘for the sake of the nation’
- Yuan forced to renounce his claim due to his generals and governors disapproving
17
Q
New Culture Movement
A
- Inspired by an increase in nationalistic feelings, political fragmentation and a decline of Confucian influence
- Included feminists, nationalists, Marxists and democrats – not one organised group
- Wanted to create a new cultural identity for China
- Questioned Confucian traditions, found new writing styles and examined China’s future
- Aimed to create peace and unity, after the failure of the 1911 Revolution
- Key Individuals:
o Cai Yuanpei – gathered a community of likeminded, innovative thinkers at Beijing University
o Hu Shi – popularised simpler Baihua style of writing → more accessible and able to spread new ideas
o Lu Xun – wrote in Baihua criticising Confucianism as outdated and exploitative
o Chen Duxiu – founded ‘New Youth’ journal
o Li Dazhao – began a Marxist study group with Mao Zedong
o Ding Ling – rebelled against gender roles
18
Q
May Fourth Movement
A
- Students preparing for ‘Day of Shame’ protests on 7th May 1919 received news about Treaty of Versailles – China had not received control over Shandong Province
- Outrage and shame emerged → protests brought forward to 4th May with 3000 students gathering in Tiananmen Square – urged Government not to sign Treaty
- 30 leaders arrested → protests spread across China, workers went on strike and a boycott of Japanese goods occurred
o June – 100k workers on week long strike in Shanghai
o Within 1 month, 20 provinces and 100 towns had protests - Leading figures of New Culture Movement also became involved in May 4 Movement
- Unity of workers, students and intellectuals emerged
- Marked the beginning of a credible nationalist movement against foreign imperialist and warlord corruption
19
Q
Formation of Chinese Communist Party
A
- Anger at China’s treatment at the Treaty of Versailles → disillusionment with the West and a shift toward Russia for inspiration, due to:
o Russia’s success in defeating foreign forces in the civil war
o Both countries looking to modernise
o Neither country liked Japan - March 1919 – Comintern established by Russia to support overseas revolutionaries
- July 1919 – Karakhan Manifesto declared that Soviets would renounce all claims in China → increased support for Russia
- April 1920 – Comintern arrives in China and meets with Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu → formation of 12 Communist cells across China
- July 1921 – First National Party Congress held → Chen elected Secretary General of newly formed CCP
20
Q
Initial Situation in Chinese Communist Party
A
- Initially small, with only 57 members
- Significant disagreement existed on whether to include peasants in revolution
o Chen believed peasants were too hard to unify so should not be involved
o Li believed that peasants needed to be involved due to the size of their class - Disagreements between CCP and Comintern – Chen labelled as being too dictatorial by Comintern, and Russians disagreed with Li’s interpretation of Marxism
- Russia remained the main source of finance and guidance for the CCP
21
Q
Guangzhou Government
A
- Aug 1917 – Lack of power and unity in national government → realisation that change was needed → members of the National Assembly gathered in Guangzhou
- Sun was elected as the grand marshal as this new military government
- Sun’s government aligned itself with Southern Warlords
- However, infighting and a loss of support with warlords → government forced to end
- May 1921 – Sun returned to Guangzhou and created a new government with General Chen
- Chen wanted to consolidate power in the South but Sun wanted to march North and re-establish the republic
- Failure of Sun’s military expedition → alliance broke down and Chen fled to Shanghai
22
Q
Sun-Joffe Declaration
A
- Sun turned attention toward foreign powers for support → came into contact with Comintern
- Aug 1922 – discussion with Comintern regarding reorganisation of Guomindang and conditions for Soviet aid
- Russia believed that ties with Guomindang would be important due to their prestige
- Formation of United Front
o Sun desperate for revolution and other attempts failed
o Chen reluctant to join as he wanted a communist revolution and did not want to associate with Bourgeoisie, but eventually joined due to the CCP’s small size and the Guomindang’s expertise - Sun-Joffe Declaration outlined goals as being national independence and unity
- Did not include any socialist goals – it was believed that a nationalist revolution would lay the foundations for a socialist one
23
Q
Benefits of First United Front
A
- Jan 1923 – base established in Guangzhou
- Comintern supported reorganisation of Guomindang:
o New structure of democratic centralism
o Three Principles of the People guided party, with new focus on removing warlords and imperialism, and emphasising the role of peasants and workers - Comintern provided military advice to United Front:
o Jiang Jieshi sent to Russia for training from the Red Army
o May 1924 – Huangpu Military Academy established and funded by Russia - Guomindang impressed by passion of younger Communists → given role of rallying support amongst workers and peasants
24
Q
Death of Sun Yixian
A
- 1924 – conflict between Northern warlords → new government likely
- Sun travelled to Beijing to create agreement with powers
- However, upon arrival, he became unwell
- Died 12 March 1925
- Consequences:
o Destabilised United Front – lacked leadership
o Factional disagreements
o Jiang Jieshi had leadership ambitions, but lacked prestige and authority
25
Q
May 30 Atrocious Incident
A
- 30 May 1925 – British guards fired on protesting textile workers in Shanghai → 11 deaths
- Solidarity protest in Guangzhou were broken up by British guards → 52 deaths
- Incident led to increased anti-imperialist feeling and renewed the May Fourth Movement
- CCP membership grew to 57k members by 1927
26
Q
Rise of Jiang Jieshi
A
- Aug 1925 – Liao Zhongkai (leading member of GMD) was assassinated → establishment of 3 man leadership team for United Front – this included Jiang
- Mar 1926 – alleged kidnapping of Jiang → blamed CCP
- Jiang then placed pressure on the GMD to removed Communists from senior positions
- Wang Jingwei (one of the members of the 3 man leadership team) was forced to resign due to rumours of involvement
- 6 July 1926 – Jiang elected chairman of GMD
27
Q
Northern Expedition
A
- 1 July 1926 – Jiang announces mobilisation of Northern Expedition
- Declared aim – overthrow warlords and complete the Revolution
- Undeclared aim – destroy Communists
- 27 July 1926 – 85k troops and 6k Huangpu officers march North
- Advantages held by Nationalist Army:
o Northern forces, despite having 750k, were divided and unable to launch a coordinated attach
o Northern troops were badly equipped and poorly trained
o Nationalist Army was disciplined, well financed, professional and directed by Soviets
o Nationalist Army had high morale - Communist agitators moved ahead of Army with the aim of mobilising workers’ and peasants’ support
- 1927 – Nationalist Army was marching on Nanjing and Shanghai after great success
28
Q
White Terror
A
- Nationalist led terror against Communists
- Jan 1927 – United Front Government moved to Wuhan → angered Jiang as this moved the Government away from his supporters in Nanchang
- Mar 1927 – Nationalist Army marches on Shanghai, with unions staging a mass strike → city became paralysed and eventually fell under Nationalist control
- Jiang became increasingly concerned with Communist influence
29
Q
Shanghai Massacre
A
- Jiang contacts one of his criminal gang links, the Green Gang, led by ‘Big Ears Du’
- Jiang promises legal immunity and the exclusive right to sell opium in Shanghai, if they removed the Communist problem
- Apr 1927 – Big Ears Du formed 2000 man militia, China Mutual Progress Association → massacre began by rounding up Communists and unionist → 5-10k Communists killed
- White Terror spread across other cities under Nationalist Control → hundreds of thousands killed
30
Q
End of First United Front
A
- Comintern greatly underestimated Jiang – Stalin knew about his plan to turn on the Communists, but believed that they would still be able to remove him
- Wang Jingwei accused Jiang of a ‘massacre of the people’ → Wang expelled from the GMD in Apr 1927
- CCP leadership in disarray:
o Cut ties with Jiang, but maintained ties with Wang
o Asked Stalin for permission to build their own army and encourage revolution in the countryside
o Stalin initially rejected, but changed his mind - Comintern advisor makes serious blunder by revealing plan to build CCP army to Wang → makes Wang more suspicious of CCP
- 15 July 1927 – Nationalists expel CCP from United Front → end of United Front
31
Q
GMD After End of First United Front
A
- GMD greatly divided with leaders becoming rivals
- Jiang moved away from leadership struggle by travelling to Japan → allowed rivals to fight amongst each other
- End of 1927 – Wang’s Wuhan Government dissolved and joined the Government in Nanjing
- GMD invited Jiang back in as they desired a strong leader
- Jan 1928 – Jiang continues Northern Expedition
- June 1928 – Beijing moved under GMD control
- Oct 1928 – Jiang elected Chairman of Nationalist Government
- Impacts of Northern Expedition:
o Created national unity – first unified government since Yuan Shikai
o Jiang held enormous power - Jiang embarked upon decade of modernisation and reconstruction – ‘Nanjing Decade’
32
Q
Communists in Crisis
A
- Breakdown in United Front caused a change in CCP leadership – Chen Duxiu was replaced with Qu Qiubai
- 1 Aug 1927 – Communist uprising against Nationalists → revolutionary government proclaimed but only lasted 4 days
- 7 Sep 1927 – Mao launches Autumn Harvest Uprising with the aim of creating an uprising amongst Hunanese peasantry
o However, this failed after facing significant opposition from GMD forces
o Mao eventually was forced to retreat to Jinggangshan with General Zhu De - 11 Dec 1927 – CCP gains control of Guangzhou but this only lasted 2 days due to a lack of support from workers → Nationalists retook the city and killed 5700 Communists and sympathisers
- Membership of the CCP fell from 57k to only 10k by the end of the 1920s
- Moscow blamed the CCP for the failures of uprisings → CCP Politburo continued focus on proletariat and blamed Mao, with him being removed from the Politburo
- June 1930 – GMD repression of CCP became so widespread that the 6th Party Congress was forced to be held in Moscow
o Qu Qiubai replaced by Li Lisan - During the rise of regional militarism in central China, Li ordered further uprisings
o CCP experienced some success in cities in the Yangzi River valley
o However, attacks on Nanchang and Wuhan failed
o These uprisings also used Red Armies from rural areas → Jiang now focussed on targeting these – where the CCP was gaining strength beforehand - 8 Jan 1931 – Li replaced with the ‘28 Bolsheviks’
o Their inexperience and youthfulness led to them being ridiculed by veteran CCP members - Mao continued to pursue revolution in rural areas
33
Q
Formation of Jiangxi Soviet
A
- Base in Jinggangshan allowed Mao to test his theories in isolation
- Mao formed the Communist’s First Workers’ and Peasants’ Army – this had broad inclusion
- Jan 1929 – Mao forced to relocate to Ruijin due to raids by the GMD and food shortages
- 7 Nov 1931 – first All China Congress of Soviets held in Ruijin → debate between Mao and 28 Bolsheviks over policy, but Mao proved successful
o Chinese Soviet Republic was proclaimed at the Congress
34
Q
Chinese Soviet Republic
A
- Mao appointed chairman of its executive committee
- Soviet acted as a community, rather than a workers’ council
- The Soviet Republic was its own state – it had its own government, constitution and laws
- The Republic aimed for an end of imperialism and warlord government, and for peace and unification
35
Q
Red Army
A
- Mao’s first and most important innovation
- General Zhu was the Commander in Chief
- Mao was the Chief Political Commissar – worked to give army a sense of self work, discipline and direction
- Political instruction given alongside military training
- Volunteer force
- Allowed captured warlord soldiers to join Red Army
- Lacked symbols of privilege or superiority
36
Q
Red Army Tactics
A
- Guerrilla tactics
- Discovered that guerrilla warfare was the best approach during Jiang’s ‘bandit extermination’ campaigns against CCP
- Aimed to lure Nationalists deep into Communist territory, then use hit and run style tactics to demoralise and exhaust Nationalists
- Relied on mobility and support from local population for information and camuflague
- Peasants provided Red Army with food, shelter, local knowledge and intelligence
37
Q
Mao’s Approach to Land Reform
A
- Policy of redistributing land from rich landowners to peasants → alienated many
- New approach:
o Execute the most brutal landlords
o Redistribute seized land to all (including rich peasants)
o Exploitative rents were abolished
o Fixed grain tax to ensure government received adequate food supplies
38
Q
Futian Purges
A
- Oct 1930 – Execution of 1000 Red Army soldiers whose loyalty was questionable
- Protests in town of Futian → Mao called a meeting with 200 leaders under the impression that they would resolve the issues, but instead executed them all
- Killing spread throughout the Soviet → 20k killed
- Purges seriously undermined popular support
39
Q
Mao Loses Influence
(Jiangxi Soviet)
A
- Politburo challenged Mao as dissenting from the correct path of a Marxist Revolution
- Politburo also criticised guerrilla tactics
- Mao ignored calls from Politburo to change → replaced as General Political Commissar of Red Army in Oct 1932
- Upon realising that his influence was reducing, Mao began to study economic and social policies
40
Q
Social Change in Jiangxi
A
- Importance placed on female education
- Campaigns against foot-binding, forces marriages and child slavery
- Equal marriage and divorce rights
- Opium farming discouraged
- Red Postal Service established
- People’s Bank created
41
Q
Collapse of Jiangxi Soviet
A
- German adviser, General Hans von Seekt, adopted new tactic of encircling Communists with barbed wire, and using a scorched-earth policy
- 1m men and 200 aircraft used to target Communists → guerrilla tactics harder to use
- Sept 1934: 60/70 Communist controlled counties lost
- New Communist strategy of positional warfare failed → CCP decided to abandon Ruijin and move to Hunan where another Soviet had been established = Beginning of Long March
42
Q
Nanjing Nationalist Government
A
- 18 Apr 1927 – Nanjing Nationalist Government formed
- June 1928 – capture of Beijing → unification of China was complete
- Structed into 5 bureaus – attempt to replicate democracy
o Executive Yuan
o Legislative Yuan
o Judiciary Yuan
o Examination Yuan
o Control Yuan - March 1929 – GMD monopolised power for the period of political tutelage as part of Sun’s program
- Jiang used his control of the military to strengthen support
- 1931 – Jiang assumed position of ‘Generalissimo’ (General of Generals)
- Jiang maintained control over several cliques
o Family clique – links to Sun’s family
o Huangpu clique – ultranationalist group fiercely loyal to Jiang
o Political study clique – associated with financial investors
o CC clique – anti communist and ambitious - Other cliques sought to limit Jiang’s power but had limited success
- Wang Jingwei formed a rival government → prevented unity and cohesion
43
Q
Regional Pressures on Nanjing Nationalist Government
A
- Regionalism remained a major issue → forced to spend significant time and money to maintain unity
- Militarist governors, on occasion, broke away from Nanjing and ruled independently → 23 campaigns to subdue rebellious provinces
- Nanjing Government initially only controlled 4 provinces
44
Q
Financial Challenges on Nanjing Nationalist Government
A
- Income tax was difficult to enforce and collect, and corruption remained a problem → government continually short on funds
- 80% of spending was on the military
- Budget was in deficit throughout Nanjing Decade → damaging inflationary pressures under HH Kung, who dealt with the debt crisis by printing new banknotes
- Excessive taxation:
o ‘Special taxes’ on everyday items → heavy burden on common people
o Some provinces collected tax years in advance – for example, Sichuan Province collected tax for 1971 in 1933
o Some provinces had tax rates 11x higher than the official rate - Failures of civil service – laziness of officials demonstrated as some read newspaper or slept during work
45
Q
Modernisation Programs of Nanjing Nationalist Government
A
- Transport and communications projects:
o Railways extended and rollingstock purchased
o x5 increase to highway network (1927-36)
o National airline established
o Expansion of postal service
o Expansion of radio and telegraph networks - x5 increase to number of high schools
- New power plants, hospitals and flood control walls
- 74% increase in number of factories (1927-32)
- Reform to banking and finance sector
- Central Bank stabilised
- Standardised weights and measures
- Introduced income tax – however, this was ultimately unsuccessful
- 10/23 European concessions over China were given up
o However, China still relied on these foreign concessions for their economy
46
Q
Jiang and Fascism
A
- Inspired by Mussolini and Hitler
- Fascism fit in with the ideas of Confucianism – especially principle of filial piety
- Viewed fascism as a ‘stimulant’ and ‘medicine’ for China
- 1932: developed Blue Shirts
o Formed out of Huangpu Military Academy
o Swore to advance Jiang’s leadership by all means
o Jiang rejected their existence - Formed Military Bureau of Statistics – gathered intelligence, surveillance and executed suspected rebels
- Up to 300k people were killed by the Nationalists (1927-37)
47
Q
New Life Movement
A
- Launched Feb 1914
- Aims:
o Create national moral rejuvenation through discipline and traditional values
o Militarise the lives of citizens to create courage, swiftness, tolerance of hard work and sacrifice for the nation
o Create a self aware, politically conscious and committed citizenry
o Be an alternative to communism - Introduced 96 rules that detailed ideal behaviours to contribute to the goal of building a new nation
- Impact:
o Very limited impact, especially in rural areas
o Thugs loyal to Nationalists beat and intimidated those who broke the rules
o Intruded into people’s lives
o Discouraged feminist ideals – instead, women were encouraged to maintain the household
48
Q
Overview of Long March
A
- Journey took a year – 16 Oct 1934 to 1935
- Travelled 12,000km at rate of 27km/day
- Fought daily skirmished against the GMD, and 15 pitched battles
- Over 60 towns occupied
- 100k set out on the March, but only 7-20k survived
49
Q
Beginning of Long March
A
- Only party leaders knew of the March → many soldiers believed it would only last a few weeks
- 28k left to defend Jiangxi Soviet, but suffered terribly when the Nationalists took control of the region
- Jiang did not realise for a few weeks that the Communists had left, potentially due to an agreement between the Communists and southern warlords
- Carried tonnes of equipment, including printing presses, books and records → slow progress marching
50
Q
Battle of Xiang River
A
- 25 Nov – 3 Dec 1934
- Jiang ordered an offensive to halt Communists
- Communists attacked with artillery and aircraft → only 30k left to continue
- Led to growing anger in the army
- 12 Dec 1934 – Mao told the CCP leadership that the March was hampered by a predictable route (‘Head on, straight on’) and carrying too much equipment → changing direction to Guizhoz province where Nationalist troop morale was supposedly low
51
Q
Zunyi Conference
A
- 7 Jan 1935: Red Army capture Zunyi → called for 12 days’ rest to decide on next steps
- 15 Jan 1935 – Zunyi Conference takes place
- Mao strongly criticised leaders of March (including Bo Go and Braun) and was backed by two senior Politburo members and three Generals
- Mao trusted due to his guerrilla strategist and military commissar role → Mao given role of Chief Advisor to Zhou Enlai
- Mao, Wang Jiaxiang and Zhou now in control of March – ‘Central Triad of Leadership’
52
Q
Long March after Zunyi Conference
A
- Mao made a number of reforms to the military:
o Increased number of commissars to build morale
o Troops given explanations of their movement
o Slogans introduced to reinforce tactics and rules
o Reverted to guerrilla warfare tactics - Experienced some victories, such as in the Battle of Loushan Pass
- Held meetings with villagers and peasants to explain the Red Army → built stronger bonds with the peasantry
- Red Army was not always kind:
o Some young men recruited by force
o Some landlords and merchants had their property taken
o Towns were sometimes ransacked and left in ruin
53
Q
Battle of Luding Bridge
A
- Nationalist troops began to close in on the Red Army → forced to rush to the Luding Bridge
- Getting to the bridge first was essential for the Communists
- Vanguard unit arrived 29 May 1935 – found the bridge guarded by enemy troops and planking on the bridge had been destroyed
- Communists eventually crossed the bridge and defeated Nationalists → became legendary later in Mao’s rule
54
Q
Great Snowy Mountains
A
- Red Army soldiers lacked equipment and preparation to cross mountains – only had cotton clothing and straw sandals
- Some cases of men slipping down cliffs and others died of exposure to elements → only 10k survivors
- Eventually reached Sichuan and met with Zhang Guotao’s Fourth Front Army but rivalry emerged between Zhang and Mao – Zhang was not at Zunyi Conference
- Two weeks allocated for army to rest but compromise could not be reached → two sides went their separate ways:
o Zhang continued to Western Sichuan
o Mao headed North toward Soviet in Shaanxi
55
Q
High Grassland
A
- Entered High Grasslands in August 1935
- Red Army faced significant challenges:
o Swampland swallowed men and horses whole
o Food shortages → forced to eat weeds, pick through faeces and boiled leather
o Disease spread as a result
o Nowhere dry to rest - 16 Sept 1935 – Battle of Lazihou Pass: Red Army victory
56
Q
End of Long March
A
- 22 Oct 1935 – end of March as Red Army reached Wuqi Zhen (base of Gao Gang’s Soviet)
- Only 7-8k survived
- Dec 1935 – Soviet base moved to Yanan
- Remnants of other abandoned Soviets boosted the numbers to 30k
- Zhang failed to establish a base in Sichuan → 2000 remaining men relocated to Yanan Soviet and threat of Zhang to Mao removed
57
Q
Significance of Long March
A
- Jiang failed on his aim to exterminate the Communist army
- Allowed Mao to clarify and refine revolutionary program
- Used as a foundation narrative for the PRC
- Creation of Long March spirit of perseverance, comradery, self sacrifice and determination
- Viewed at the time as a defeat
- By 1935, the GMD has the greatest degree of control of any group in China since the end of the Qing Dynasty
58
Q
Japanese Invasion of Manchuria
A
- 1931 – Japan begin to intrude on Chinese territory
- Focus on Manchuria due to resources, and a belief that this was needed to support Japan’s industrial and social needs
- By the end of 1931, Japan controlled all of Manchuria → anger amongst Chinese and caused mass student protesters in Shanghai and Nanjing
o Jiang unable to respond due to his forces being too weak → brought Nationalist government into disrepute - 1937 – beginning of second Sino-Japanese War
59
Q
Yanan Way
A
- Yanan: poor region with no industry or major buildings and low literacy rates
- CCP extended its influence and won the support from local peasantry → laid foundation for success in civil war
- Yanan Way: policies, revolutionary ideals and mass mobilisation campaigns during the Yanan Soviet era
- Yanan Soviet allowed for growth of the CCP and Red Army, further experimentation on government, development of Mao Zedong Thought, and increase in support for the CCP
60
Q
Land and Tax Reform During Yanan Way
A
- Surplus land taken from landlords and redistributed to those in need by poor peasants’ associations
- Landlords still able to hold some land – ensured that no groups were excluded
- Allowed peasants to be involved in the Revolution
- Emphasised that people must ‘turn over’ established orders
- Loan interest reduced from 18% to 1.5%
- Rents capped at 25% of harvest value
- Landlords who invested in local industry or who had a son in the Red Army were given tax bonuses
61
Q
Social Change During Yanan Way
A
- Women’s associations established to support women
- Infant mortality reduced through education and food
- Literacy rate increased from 1% (1936) → 50% (1943)
- Creation of University of Anti-Japanese Resistance attracted left-wing students and intellectuals
- → Increased popularity of CCP as they presented themselves as organised and focussed on being anti-Japanese, and worked to improve livelihoods
62
Q
Economic Change During Yanan Way
A
- Embraced Long March Spirit of hardship and adversity to become self-sufficient
- Soldiers not on duty helped peasants
- Land set aside for soldiers on duty – others looked after it
- Everyone involved in growing food and making goods
- Most army units produced 40% of their food
- Opium farming was the greatest source of income
- → High morale and confidence
63
Q
Political Change During Yanan Way
A
- Principle of Three Thirds – local government composed of:
o 1/3 from CCP
o 1/3 from leftist groups
o 1/3 from anyone else, excluding landlords, Japanese collaborators and GMD - Officials given independence to meet local needs
- Intellectuals and bureaucrats encouraged to do manual labour amongst peasants
- Mass line: Communists should work among peasants, listen carefully to their concerns, and find solutions
- → allowed Mao to consolidate power and refine theories
64
Q
Beginning of
Rectification Campaign During Yanan
A
- During the 1940s, Mao spent up to 14hrs/day studying policies and Marxism
- 1 Feb 1942 – Rectification Campaign introduced
- Aims:
o Teach Mao’s ideas to Chinese Communists, and eliminate the influence of political opponents → Mao wanted his ideas to be pre-eminent
o Ensure party members had a sound grasp of Communist ideology
o Create unity and discipline
o Prevent Communists from becoming ideologically stagnant, and renew their revolutionary energy
65
Q
Rectification Campaign as a Purge
A
- Became a purge because Mao:
o Needed to remove rivals to his leadership
o Felt threatened by the influx of intellectuals
o Felt some new recruits were unreliable
o Felt his authority was reduced, especially upon the arrival of Wang Ming - Rectification Campaign followed a set routine:
o Lecture given to mass gathering
o Break into small groups to discuss and study the ideas presented – supposed to grasp the ‘correct’ interpretation, Mao’s
o Those who were not able to were required to attend struggle sessions, where they were humiliated and forced to offer self-criticisms
o Those who needed to reform also were to carry out manual labour – resistance would result in execution - Rectification was successful in removing Mao’s opposition, including from Wang Ming
66
Q
Maoist Virtues
A
- Humility
- Primacy of human will over material forces
- Attituded mattered
- Struggle, sacrifice, selflessness, diligence, ingenuity and courage were celebrated – shaped by Long March Spirit
- Continuous struggle expected to lead to revolutionary success
67
Q
Mao on Theory and Practice
A
- Believed ideas needed to be grounded in practical application and adjusted to fit current experience in China
- Criticised people who did not put theory into practice
68
Q
Mao’s Consolidation of Power
A
- Mao’s Allies:
o Chen Boda (Head of CCP Propaganda Bureau) able to rewrite history of CCP to increase Mao’s involvement → development of a cult of personality
o Kang Sheng (Director of Social Affairs Department) arrested and executed communists who resisted ‘treatment’ and could not be ‘cured’ of their ideological ‘sickness’ - Growth of CCP:
o 50m people in Yanan Soviet by 1940
o CCP governed effectively and largely free of corruption
o 40k CCP members (1937) → 800k (1940) → >1m (1945)
o Growth of Red Army 92k (1937) → 860k (1945)
o Vast support from peasantry and intellectuals
o On New Democracy created a united front against Japan → huge increase in support - Mao Zedong Thought:
o Became part of the collective consciousness of CCP in Yanan → cohesive vision and purpose
o Leadership cult and political dominance of Mao established by 1944
69
Q
Jiang’s Strategy toward Japan
A
- Passive strategy due to lack of military strength → Jiang’s supporters uninspired → Fujian Rising (1933), where loyal officers made an alliance with community to make rival government
- 1935 – Jiang makes agreement to allow Japanese to take 6 provinces, while Jiang removes GMD forced from Beijing
- 9th December Movement 1935 – 6000 outraged students in Beijing, Shanghai and Wuhan take to the streets due to anger at Jiang’s strategy
70
Q
Zhang’s Truce with Red Army
A
- Zhang Xueliang – General in National Revolutionary Army
o 1928 – declared support for GMD to help unify China
o 1931 – Zhang’s troops fell back into China after Manchuria fell to the Japanese
o 1935 – Jiang ordered Zhang to commence a Sixth Extermination Campaign against Yanan Soviet; however, Zhang wanted to fight the Japanese, not the Communists → became disillusioned with Jiang and only made half-hearted skirmishes and fake battles - Seventh Comintern Congress (Aug 1935) – resolution passed for Communist parties to seek alliances with other leftist groups and anti Japanese forces
- CCP made contact with Zhang and rhetoric appealed to him
- Jan 1936 – truce negotiated between Zhang and CCP
o Allowed for trade between Yanan and Xian
o CCP urged GMD to end civil war and join a united front - Apr 1936 – Zhang met with Zhou Enlai in an effort convince Jiang to end Civil War and bide time for CCP to rebuild
71
Q
Xian Incident
A
- 3 Dec 1936 – Jiang flew to Xian to impose order on troops under Zhang’s command, and to discipline Zhang
- Zhang ordered to resume Extermination Campaign – but did not want this
- 12 Dec 1936 – Zhang’s troops attacked temple where Jiang was staying and arrested him
- Debate emerged on whether to execute Jiang or not
- Jiang released on the condition that he end anti-Communist campaigns and agree to a Second United Front – this approach was supported by Stalin
- Significance:
o 25 Dec 1936 – Jiang returned to Nanjing and was seen as a hero due to expected anti-Japanese movement
o CCP were also viewed positively as they put the interests of the nation ahead of the Party
o Zhang was arrested and served an indefinite house arrest sentence
72
Q
Second United Front
A
- Mao declared that Red Army would head towards Japanese positions on 20 Aug 1937, with or without an agreement with Nationalists → popular support
- 22 Sept 1937 – Second United Front formally declared
- → Yanan declared an autonomous region
- → Red Army redesignated Eight Route Army – Army remained with Communist Generals but strategy was directed by GMD → any errors now seen as GMD mistakes
- New Fourth Army established soon after – consisted of Jiangxi guerrillas and new Communist recruits
73
Q
Opening Months of Second Sino Japanese War
A
- War declared 7 Jul 1937 with minor clash at Marco Polo Bridge
- 13 Aug – Japanese arrived at Shanghai → Jiang sent best troops to defend and ordered troops not to retreat → 60% of best troops (250k) killed or injured
- 15 Aug – GMD declared war as a ‘War of Self-Defence’ and hoped for a long war of attrition to ‘trade space for time’
- Nov 1937 – Shanghai lost
- Dec 1937 – Nanjing lost
- Chinese retreat unprepared → hundreds of thousands blocked roads and railways, and wounded were left with no care
74
Q
Japanese Atrocities in Nanjing
A
- Reign of terror from Dec 1937 – Jan 1938
- Racially motivated
- Up to 300k killed and tens of thousands of women/girls raped
75
Q
Wuhan Government
A
- Government re-established in Wuhan during Second Sino Japanese War
- 7 June 1938 – Jiang ordered destruction of dykes on the Yellow River to slow Japanese → crops in 3 provinces ruined, up to 5m became homeless, and 500k drowned → support for Jiang fell
- 25 Dec 1938 – Wuhan fell
76
Q
China During Second Sino Japanese War
A
- Free China
o 20 Nov 1937 – government moved to Chongqing: capital of Free China
o Relative safe haven; however, Nationalists lost central and coastal China power base, rail network, industrial centres and most fertile farmland
o Smuggling became main way of accessing goods → reduction in tax revenue from 67% to 6% → decision to print more banknotes → hyperinflation of 237% (1942-44) and 251% (Jan-Aug 1945) - Widespread corruption
o Up to 30% of foreign aid ended up on the black market
o Some government members made vast fortunes on speculation and insider trading
o Subversive groups continued to be targeted
o Restrictions of press and free speech grew tighter
o Peasants suffered heavy taxation of 70-90% of crop value - Henan Famine (1942-43)
o 2-3m deaths
o Caused by forced grain requisitioning, corruption, flooding of Yellow River (1938) and severe drought (1942) - Foreign Relations
o US entering into War → Nationalists provided with supplies, advice and equipment, on the condition that it was used against Japanese
o However, Jiang still stockpiled equipment and best troops for future campaigns against Communists
77
Q
Jiang’s Military Blunders
A
- Misused US military supplies and equipment, instead choosing to stockpile it
- Pursued a strategy of a stalemate, and was unwilling to take offensive action → ruined morale and made him appear as weak
- Commanders were incompetent
- Interfered in chain of command despite poor intelligence → confusion
- Apr 1944 – Massive Japanese success during Ichigo Offensive → loss of several large cities and loss of newly build airfields in central and southern China
- Jiang more concerned with maintaining political supremacy than driving Japanese out of China
- Treated soldiers poorly:
o Beatings were common
o Soldiers provided with insufficient supplies
o Conscripts roped together so they couldn’t escape
o Up to 50% (1.5m) conscripts dies from hunger, thirst, exposure or disease
o Wealthy rarely conscripted
o Wounded soldiers poorly cared for
78
Q
End of Second United Front
A
- 1940 – New Fourth Army incident:
o GMD ordered 4th Army troops to move North over Yangzi River
o Nationalists launched an attack on Communist forces → massacre of troops, imprisonment of commanders and rape of women
o Total of 7000 deaths
o → GMD reputation diminished and public confusion at why the GMD were willing to attack CCP but not Japanese
79
Q
CCP During Second Sino Japanese War
A
- Communists largely left out of fighting due to their territory being of little value to Japanese
- Communists continued to fight after 4th Army incident → perceived to be patriotic and loyal defenders of China
- Employed guerrilla tactics against Japanese
- Hundred Regiments Offensive (1940) – large scale assault that was a massive failure → 22k deaths and a return to guerrilla tactics
- Japanese brutality drove peasants to support CCP
80
Q
Dixie Mission
A
- Jul 1944 – USA sent mission to China to evaluate the Communists as a force, and attempt to create unity between GMD and CCP
- Mission was impressed by Communists’ morale, organisation, discipline and guerrilla tactics → expected future CCP success
81
Q
Hurley’s Negotiations
A
- Nov 1944 – General Hurley sent to Yanan to further encourage cooperation
- Hurley:
o Loud, vain and cowboy like character → Mao described him as a ‘clown’
o Didn’t understand Chinese politics – did not understand the differences between CCP and Nationalists
o Mistrusted Communists - Hurley helped Mao to draft 5 point amendment for GMD – CCP cooperation but Jiang refused to accept it → Mao outraged
82
Q
End of Second Sino Japanese War
A
- War ended sooner than Jiang expected as US never launched an assault in China
- Final impact of War:
o 3m soldiers killed, and 18m civilians killed
o 95m people displaced
o Destruction of multiple towns and cities - Nationalists were in a better position to return to government:
o Nationalist Army 3x bigger than Communists’
o Nationalists were equipped with US weapons and vehicles - US airlifted Nationalist forced into major cities and US marines secured coastal ports until Nationalists arrived
83
Q
Mao Zedong Thought
A
*Peasants are a significant source of power that must be harnessed for the revolution to be successful
* Need to remove warlords, imperialists, corrupt officials and landlords, and replace them with peasant associations
* Need for a violent revolution
* Need for a strictly disciplined, well behaved and accountable Red Army to build a positive relationship with peasants
* Land redistribution important for peasantry
* Need to improve the wellbeing of the masses to increase support for the CCP
84
Q
Attempts at Peace Settlement after Sino Japanese War
A
- Aug 1945 – Hurley attempted to reach agreement but little progress was made
- End of Sino Japanese War → race in the North, where CCP was stronger, for Japanese arms and territory
- Communists withdrew to countryside to build support amongst rural population and surround cities while waiting for them to fall from GMD control – strategy allowed for preparation for conflict
- General Marshall sent to China to facilitate the formation of a coalition government and avoid civil war → 10 Jan 1946 ceasefire signed → gave Communists time to strengthen hold on Manchuria
85
Q
Land and Men
A
- Nationalists held a position of strength during first phase of Civil War – considerable military gains including Yanan
- Mao believed that keeping towns for the sake of keeping them was unwise – need to instead focus on building popular support and destroying the enemy
- Red Army therefore prioritised keeping men
- Nationalists spent long periods sitting in towns, were unsure of their fighting strength and faced Red Army’s guerrilla tactics → Nationalist army overstretched
- Mao used himself as a bait to lure Nationalist troops into pursuit and ambush
- 1 May 1946 – Red Army renamed People’s Liberation Army → seen as honourable to fight for them
86
Q
Nationalist Weaknesses in Civil War
A
- Troop morale was low due to minimal resistance against Japanese
- Corruption reduced quality of military, tainted reputation and led to them losing US support
- Unable to deal with inflation → lost support from middle class
- Failed retreats and logistics allowed CCP to appropriate US supplies
- Jiang appointed commanders based on loyalty over military skill
- Failed to gain support from local populations due to seizure of land and money, forced enlistment and arrest of protesters
87
Q
Strengths of CCP in Civil War
A
- Political structures in CCP controlled areas offered effective administration
- Mao’s leadership inspired commanders and men
- Strong and central leadership allowed for strategy to shift from defensive to offensive
- Strong and skilled commanders to lead campaigns, such as Lin Biao
- Able to appropriate US supplies
- Peasants joined CCP due to land reform policies → CCP accessed food, intelligence and recruits
88
Q
Campaigns During Civil War
A
- 1946/47 – Nationalists unsuccessfully attempted to take Communist bases in Manchuria → laid basis for CCP control of Northern China
- 1947 ‘Strong Point Offensive’ → Nationalists took Yanan but lost 4 other North East provinces → Mao shifts to offensive strategy, strengthened with abandoned Nationalist arms
- Sept 1948 ‘Liaoshen Campaign’ – Nationalists attempt to take Manchuria again but irretrievably lost it → North East China conceded to CCP and Nationalists in retreat
- Nov 1948 Huaihai Campaign → Nationalists lost central provinces and Southern China now open to CCP
89
Q
End of Civil War
A
- 1948 – guerrilla fighting replaced with strategy of surrounding cities until Nationalists could not longer reinforce or supply them → large scale Nationalist surrender
- 21 Jan 1949 – Jiang resigned as President and fled to Taiwan
- 31 Jan 1949 Pingjin Campaign → PLA forces marched into Beijing
- PLA negotiation with Li Zongren → CCP offered terms of unconditional surrender but this was rejected → offensives resumed with ‘mopping up’ exercise
- Apr 1949 – PLA symbolically cross Yangzi River
- 23 Apr 1949 – PLA captured Nanjing, followed by Shanghai and Guangzhou
- 1 Oct 1949 – Mao proclaimed foundation of PRC at entrance to Forbidden City in Beijing
- Civil War never formally ended
90
Q
Significance of Jiangxi Soviet
A
Provided a vision and framework for future revolutionary work
