Syntax Flashcards

Question

Accusative of Place to Which

Answer 1

Place to which is expressed by the accusative case with the preposition **ad**. With names of towns, cities, and small islands, and the words **domus**, 'home', and **rūs**, 'country', no preposition is used.

Answer 2

The names of towns, cities, and small islands, and the words **domus** and **rūs** require a special case to express *place in which* or *place where*, which for other nouns is expressed by the ablative with the preposition **in**. This case is called the *locative*. For nouns of the first and second declensions, the locative singular is identical to the genitive singular (-**ī** or -**ae**). In the plural for these two declensions, it is identical in form to the ablative plural (-**īs**). For nouns of the third declension, the locative ends in either -**e** or -**ī** in the singular, in -**ibus** in the plural.

Answer 3

A third declension noun with generally be an i-stem if: 1. The nominative and genitive singular have the same number of syllables. 2. The stem of the noun ends in two consonants *except* if the second consonant is an **l** or **r**. 3. The nominative singular of a neuter noun ends in -**e**, -**al**, or -**ar**.

Answer 4

A reflexive pronoun generally refers to or *reflects* the subject of its own clause; therefore, it cannot have a nominative case. In the first and second persons, there is no separate reflexive prounoun; one uses simply the correct case of **ego** or **tū**, and whether the usage is reflexive or not can be determined from the relationship of the pronoun to the subject. If they are the same person or thing, then the pronoun is reflexive; if they are different, then the pronoun is not reflexive. Exempla: 1. **Mē** videō (Reflexive) 2. **Mē** videt (Not Reflexive) In the third person, however, a separate form is used for both the singular and plural: --, suī, sibi, sē, sē. Exempla: 1. **Eum** videt. (He [person A] sees *him* [person B].) 2. **Sē** videt. (He sees himself.)

Answer 5

The possessive adjectives for the first person are **meus, -a, -um**, 'my', and **noster, nostra, nostrum**, 'our'. For the second person, they are **tuus, -a, -um**, 'your', and **vester, vestra, vestrum**, 'your'. Since they are adjectives, they must agree with the thing possessed in gender, number, and case. As has been seen throughout the text, the possessive adjective need not be expressed in Latin when its sense can be inferred easily from the context. When the adjective is used in Latin, it is strictly emphatic or is used to clarify a point which the context would otherwise leave obscure. The possessive adjective for the third person is **suus, -a, -um** (singular and plural), but this word is used only *reflexively*; that is, the thing possessed belongs to the subject. When reflexive possession is not desired in the third person, a form of **is, ea, id** in the genitive case is used. Exempla: 1. **Suum** imperium ōdit. (He hates *his own* authority.) 2. **Eius** imperium ōdit. (He [person A] hates *his* [person B's] authority.) Observation: The genitive of the personal pronouns is *never* used to show possession. In order to express possession in the first and second persons, the *possessive adjectives* must be used.

Answer 6

The relative pronoun introduces an adjectival clause which modifes the antecedent of that pronoun. The relative pronoun agrees in gender and number with its antecedent, but its case is determined by its used in its own clause.

Answer 7

The relative pronoun is frequently used in Latin to begin a sentence where the English would use a demonstrative or a personal pronoun. Since the antecedent of the relative pronoun is a word or idea in the previous sentence, this usage makes for greater cohesion between sentences and thoughts.

Answer 8

The ablative is used with the preposition **cum** to denote accompaniment. Translate: "with"

Answer 9

Time when or within which is expressed by the ablative. A preposition is not regularly used. Translate: "in, at, within"

Answer 10

The accusative, usually without a preposition, is used to express duration of time or extent of space. It answers the question "for how long?", whether it be of time or distance. Translate: "for, during"

Answer 11

Subordinate clauses within an indirect statement (subject accusative and infinitive) normally have their verbs in the subjunctive, the tense of which is frequently determined according to the rules of tense sequence after the verb or phrase of the head which introduces the indirect statement. The development of this usage is logical, for the subjunctive is the mood of *idea, intention, possibility,* etc., as opposed to *fact*, and the person reporting the statement does not claim responsibility that the subject of the relative clause *actually* does the action.

Answer 12

* -**ī** generally occurs when the participle is used as an attributive adjective * -**e** generally occurs when the participle is used as a noun or in an ablative absolute.

Answer 13

The *respect* in which a statement is true is expressed by the *ablative without a preposition*. Translate: "in (respect to)"

Answer 14

The *vocative* is the case of *direct address*. It is generally identical to the nominative, except for second declension nouns ending in -**us** or -**ius**: 1. Nouns ending in -**us** have a vocative singular in -**e** 2. Nouns ending in -**ius** have a vocative singular in -**ī** 3. The adjective **meus**, -**a**, -**um**, 'my', has the masculine singular vocative **mī** All plural vocatives are identical to the nominative plural.

Answer 15

Two datives frequently appear in close proximity, one denoting the *purpose* (*service*) with reference to which the action or idea expressed in the clause occurs, the other denoting the person or thing with reference to whom or which the action or idea occurs or is relevant. Another way to look at it: one denotes the advantage/disadvantage and the other dative further specifies the advantage/disadvantage. Translate: "(for the purpose of)...(with reference to)", "as a...to/for"

Answer 16

Sometimes comparatives and superlatives can be translated with "very" or "extremely" than making an actual comparison.

Answer 17

**Quam** followed by an adjective (or adverb) in the superlative degree gives the meaning "as [adjective/adverb] as possible"

Answer 18

Comparisons can be made in two ways in Latin: 1. The conjunction **quam** is here equivalent to the English 'than'. As in English, **quam**, 'than', has the same case after it as it has before it (i.e., the things compared are in the same case). 2. Here the ablative, without a preposition, is used with the comparative adjective to denote comparison. The ablative of comparison and the construction with **quam** may be used interchangeably with no distinction in meaning.

Answer 19

The ablative, without a preposition, is used with the comparatives to express the degree in which the two things being compared differ. Less frequently, this kind of ablative is also found with a superlative in statements in which there is an implicit comparative judgment made. Translate: "by"

Answer 20

The genitive is sometimes used in Latin to express the *whole* group or unit of which the word on which the genitive depends expresses the *part*. The ablative, preceded by the prepositions **ē** (**ex**), or **dē** is used as an alternative to the partitive genitive with some words. This is especially frequent when the word denoting the *part* is a cardinal numeral. Some words used substantively in Latin require a partitive genitive to render an idea which in English would be expressed with a noun and adjective. Exemplum: Satis **pecūniae** habet (He has enough (*of*) *money*) In the singular, the word **plūs** is used substantively and is generally indeclinable; in the plural, it is used attributively and is declined.

Answer 21

Grammatically, the ablative absolute refers to a part of the sentence which has no close syntactical connection with the rest; it is "untied" or "detached" from the main clause. The Latin absolute construction requires the ablative, not the nominative, case. The subject of the absolute construction is different from the subject (or object) of the main clause. In the broadest sense, the absolute functions as an adverb giving the *circumstances* or *time* in which the action of the main clause occurs. In an ablative absolute clause, the noun/pronoun in the ablative serves as the *subject*, and the participle serves as the *verb* (or an adjective is the *predicate*). The tense of the participle is relative to the tense of the main verb. The present participle refers to an action which occurs at the *same time* as that of the main verb. The perfect participle refers to an action which occurred *prior* to the time of the main verb. The future participle refers to an action which occurs *subsequent* to the time of the main verb (although the future is very rare in classical Latin). Observations: 1. When the present participle is used in an ablative absolute, the -**e** ending for the ablative singular occurs rather than the -**ī**. 2. Since there is no present participle for the verb **sum**, two nouns are sometimes used in an ablative absolute construction with an *implied* participle connecting them. The second noun is in effect a predicate ablative. 3. The participle, since it is a verbal adjective, retains its verbal functions. Consequently, it can control an object. Translate: "with, when, since, if, although"

Answer 22

The ablative, generally without a preposition, is sometimes used to express *cause*. Translate: "because of" Sometimes cause is expressed by **ob** or **propter**, "on account of", followed by the accusative case.

Answer 23

A noun in the ablative or genitive case, when modified by an adjective, may be used to describe or express a quality of another noun. Exemplum: "A man of great wisdom" 1. Vir magnā sapientiā 2. Vir magnae sapientiae

Answer 24

Deponent verbs have passive forms, but active meanings. However, 1. Deponents *do have* a present participle which is active in *form* and *meaning*. 2. Deponent verbs have a perfect *active* participle; other verbs have only a perfect *passive* participle. 3. Deponent verbs have *both* a future *active* and a future *passive* participle in *form* and *meaning*. 4. While the present and perfect infinitives have *passive forms* but *active meanings*, the future infinitive is *active* in *form* and *meaning*. The present and future participles and the future infinitive, then, pose the only problem in the deponent system.

Answer 25

Several verbs have active forms and meanings in the present system, but passive forms with active meanings in the perfect system. These are called *semi-deponents*.

Answer 26

There is a verbal idea understood in nouns and adjectives of feeling or action. The noun that is the object of this verbal idea is called the *objective* *genitive*, and the noun that is its subject is called the *subjective genitive*. Exemplum: 1. Objective Genitive: 1. amor patriae (love of the native land [i.e., what is loved is the native land) 2. Subjective Genitive: 1. fēminae amor patriae (the *woman's* love of her native land)

Answer 27

A noun in the genitive case which stands alone (or modified by an adjective) in the predicate denotes a characteristic or class. Exemplum: 1. "**Hominis sapientis** est librōs legere" (It is *[the mark] of a wise man* to read books) 2. "**Bonī** est deōs laudare" (It is *[the mark] of a good [man]* to praise the gods") Translate: "It is the mark of, characteristic of"

Answer 28

Since the infinitive is a verbal noun, it may function as the subject of the sentence, especially with the verb *esse*. Exemplum: **Vidēre** est crēdere ("*To see* is to believe; *seeing* is believing") Infinitives used as nouns are considered *neuter singular*. Infinitives used in this way may be modified by adjectives which will appear in the neuter. Exemplum: Librōs legere **bonum** est ("To read books is [a] *good [thing]*; reading books is good; it is a good thing to read books")

Answer 29

The present subjunctive is used to express a command or an exhortation. The jussive sense occurs mainly in the third person; the hortatory in the first. The negative is introduced by **nē**. Translate: "May, let"

Answer 30

The subjunctive may be used independently to express an action which might possibly or conceivably occur. For present or future potentiality, the present (sometimes the perfect) subjunctive is used. This type of subjunctive is allied to future less vivid conditions; in fact, one might conceive of it as the apodosis (concluding clause) of such a condition, the protasis (if-clause) of which has been suppressed. Past potentiality is expressed with the imperfect subjunctive. The negative of the potential subjunctive is introduced by **nōn**. Translate: "would, could, might"

Answer 31

The present and imperfect subjunctives may be used to *deliberate* about a course of action. This is frequently used in a rhetorical question (i.e., a question which is asked for effect, but which does not demand an answer). Exemplum: Quid faciam? ("What should I do?") The negative is introduced by **nōn**. Translate: "should"

Answer 32

A wish for the future which is capable of fulfillment is expressed by the present subjunctive alone or is introduced by **utinam** or **ut** (negative **utinam nē** or **nē**). Translate: "would that...may" Wishes incapable of fulfillment utilize the imperfect subjunctive for present time (cf. present contrary-to-fact conditions) and the pluperfect for past time (cf. past contrary-to-fact conditions). Translate: "would that...were ---ing" or "would that...had"

Answer 33

Questions are sometimes introduced by interrogative words: **quis**?, 'who?'; **quid**?, 'what?'; **quandō**?, 'when?'; **quō**?, **quō modō**?, 'how?'; **cur**?, **quam ob rem**?, 'why?'; **unde**?, 'from where?'; etc. If no interrogative word is used, the enclitic -**ne** is frequently attached to the introductory word in order to indicate that a question is approaching. When the answer "yes" is expected, the question is introduced by the word **nōnne**. When the answer "no" is expected, the question is introduced by the word **num**. Double questions are introduced by the particles **utrum** (or -**ne** or no introductory particle at all)...**an**, 'whether...or'.

Answer 34

Indirect questions are subordinate noun clauses which serve as the object (and, less frequently, the subject) of the words on which they depend. These words usually, but not always, express or imply actions that take place in the head, such as saying, thinking, seeing, perceiving, knowing, asking, and the like. Indirect questions are introduced by an interrogative word and have their verbs in the subjunctive. Exemplum: "I know *who you are*." (Direct Question: "Who are you?") In direct speech, these clauses would have been direct questions with their verbs in the indicative or the deliberative subjunctive. **Note**: 1. While indirect questions follow the rules for sequence of tenses, a periphrastic form is frequently used to denote future time. 2. In double indirect questions, when the second question is negative, **necne** is used more frequently than the **an nōn** of the direct question.

Answer 35

*Indefinite* pronouns represent *some* person or thing without designating exactly *which* one. **Quīdam**, 'a certain', met in the previous unit, is also an *indefinite* pronoun. 1. **aliquis** The pronoun **aliquis, aliquid** is declined like the interrogative pronoun **quis, quid** with **ali-** added as a prefix; the forms for the adjective, **aliquī, aliqua, aliquod**, are identical to those of the relative pronoun **quī, quae, quod** with the prefix **alī**, with the exception of the feminine nominative singular (as noted in the three parts given), and the neuter nominative and accusative plural, which are **aliqua**. The pronoun means 'someone, something, anyone, anything'; the adjective means 'some, any'. 2. **quis Quis, quid**(adjective**quī, qua, quod**) is essentially identical to**aliquis, aliquid**(adjective**aliquī, aliqua, aliquod**), although it perhaps has a greater degree of indefiniteness about it. It is most frequently used instead of**aliquis**after the words**sī, nisī, num,**and**nē**. *Remember: after **sī, nisī, num,** and **nē**, all the **ali**-'s drop away.* 3. **quisquam Quisquam, quidquam**(sometimes written**quicquam**) is declined like**quis, quid**with the suffix**-quam**. It means 'someone (something), anyone (anything)' and is used mainly in sentences which are negative or imply negation. The adjective for**quisquam**is supplied by the word**ūllus, -a, -um**, 'any'. 4. **quisque** The pronoun **quisque, quidque** (sometimes written **quicque**) (adjective, **quīque, quaeque, quodque**) is declined like **quis, quid** (adjective like **quī, quae, quod**) with the suffix **-que** and means 'each one (each), everyone (every)'. * Particular Indefinites * aliquis * quis * quisquam * quidam * General Indefinites * quivis * quilibet * Distributive Indefinites * quisque * uterque

Answer 36

There are certain intransitive verbs in Latin which govern the dative case and take a dative of reference.

Answer 37

Intransitive verbs (verbs which do not take a direct object) are sometimes found in the passive voice, but since they cannot have a direct object, then in the passive they cannot have a personal subject. When a passive idea is desired, an *impersonal* construction must be used. An *impersonal* verb form appears in the third person singular and has no personal subject. The pronoun "it" may be used in English to give a literal translation. When such verbs are used in the passive periphrastic construction, the ablative of agent generally occurs instead of the more usual dative of agent in order to avoid confusion with the dative that is governed by the intransitive verb. Exemplum: Tibi ā nōbīs parcendum est ("It must be spared to you by us") The impersonal passive construction sometimes occurs with other verbs which do not take the dative when particular attention is called to the verbal action itself rather than to the ones performing the action. Exemplum: Domī pūgnātur (It is being fought at home; there is fighting at home; fighting is going on at home) Translate: "It is..."

Answer 38

Many verbs compounded with prefixes such as the following govern the dative case: * ad- * ante- * circum- * con- * in- * inter- * ob- * post- * prae- * prō- * sub- * super- It will be noted that such verbs cannot stand alone or, if transitive, simply with an accusative object; they require another word to complete the sense. These datives, like all datives, are basically referential.

Answer 39

Clauses which express the result of an action or a quality are introduced by **ut** for the positive, **ut nōn** (**nēmō**, **nihil**, **numquam**, etc.) for the negative, and have their verbs in the subjunctive. The approach of a result clause is often indicated by the presence of an adjective or adverb of degree in the main clause. * Adjectives: **tantus**, -**a**, -**um**, 'so great'; **tālis**, -**e**, 'such, of such a sort'; **tot** (indeclinable), 'so many' * Adverbs: **ita**, 'so'; **tam**, 'so'; **sīc**, 'in this way'; **adeō**, 'so' The rules for sequence of tenses are generally observed. However, the perfect subjunctive is sometimes found in the secondary sequence instead of the imperfect in order to lay stress on the fact that the action is completed. Note the following similarities and distinctions between purpose and result clauses: * Purpose * Positive introduced by **ut** * Negative introduced by **nē****** * Result * Positive introduced by **ut** * Negative introduced by **ut**...**nōn** * An adverb or adjective of degree in the main clause frequently signals the approach of a clause of result. Translate: "...that..."

Answer 40

Certain verbs and expressions have result clauses either as their object or subject. * *Efficere/facere ut* + object clause * *Accidit/fit/fierī potest/effēcit ut* + subject clause The verbs **efficere** and **facere** are frequently followed by **nē** instead of **ut**...**nōn** to introduce a negative clause, particularly when there is an implicit notion of command in the sentence.

Answer 41

The relative pronoun **quī**, **quae**, **quod** plus the subjunctive can be used to describe its antecedent in terms of the general qualities or characteristics of the group to which the antecedent belongs. The relative clause with its verb in the subjunctive characterizes its antecedent in terms of the general qualities of the larger group to which the antecedent belongs. The relative clause with its verb in the indicative describes a particular antecedent. Compare: * Is est quī celeriter ambulet (He is the [kind of] man who walks fast) * Is est quī celeriter ambulat (He is the [actual] man who walks fast) In many instances, these clauses have general or indefinite antecedents, of which the following are common: * sunt quī * est quī * nēmō est quī * nihil est quod * quis est quī? * quid est quod? But these generic clauses are also found with less vague and even with precise antecedents when they are felt to characterize or generalize rather than denote a specific attribute of the antecedent. Exemplum: is est quī ("he is the [kind of] man who") Relative clauses of characteristic are best translated into English using the indicative; the generic idea is carried over into English by the formulae which introduce such clauses--i.e., 'there is *no one* who', 'he is the *sort of* man who'. Sometimes, however, the context requires that the subjunctive be rendered with potential force. Exemplum: Quis est quī hoc faciat? ("Who is the [kind of] one who does this? OR Who is there who *would* do this? [potential force]") Frequently, negative relative clauses of characteristic are introduced by **quīn** (= **quī** [**quae**, **quod**] **nōn**), 'who...not, who...would not'.

Answer 42

Very closely allied to the relative clause of characteristic is the relative clause of result. Here there is a fusion of both a relative clause of characteristic and a result clause to produce a relative clause of result. The relative pronoun is standing for the **ut** which would normally introduce the clause of result. Relative result clauses use **quī**, **quae**, **quod** plus the subjunctive to describe the result of an action just as **ut** with the subjunctive. Exemplum: Nihil est tam malum **quod** mūtārī nōn possit ("There is nothing so bad *with the result that* it cannot be changed")

Answer 43

Purpose clauses were presented as having their verbs in the subjunctive and as being introduced by **ut** for the positive and **nē** for the negative. However, there are other ways of expressing purpose with the subjunctive in Latin: 1. **Quō** (ablative, 'by which') introduces a purpose clause which contains a comparative. 1. Exemplum: Properātis quō celerius adveniātis ("You hasten by which you may arrived more quickly") 2. Purpose clauses may be introduced by a relative pronoun when its antecedent, usually not the subject of the main verb, is clearly expressed in the main clause. They may also be introduced by an adverb (**ubi**, 'where'; **unde**, 'from where'; **quō**, '(to) where')

Answer 44

Reflexives refer to the subject of the verb of their own clause. A reflexive so used is called a *direct reflexive*. However, in subordinate subjunctive clauses and in indirect statement, the reflexive usually refers to the subject of the *main* clause and not to that of the clause in which it appears. This use is called the *indirect reflexive*. Exemplum: Plēbs ōrat ut **sibi** parcāmus (The common people beg that we spare *them*) If one wishes to take the less frequent course and have one's reflexive refer to the subject of the verb in its own clause, clarity can be achieved by inserting the appropriate form of the intensive pronoun, **ipse**, **ipsa**, **ipsum**.

Answer 45

**Cum** is not only a preposition meaning 'with'; but it occurs also as a subordinating conjunction with the meanings 'when', 'since', and 'although'. The verb in such clauses is most often in the subjunctive, its tense determined by the rules for sequence of tenses after the main verb. The meaning of **cum** in such clauses must be determined from the context of the sentence. Remember that the **cum** clause, although it may appear first in the sentence, is a subordinate clause, *not* the main clause. Summary: * **cum** Temporal * Primary Sequence: indicative * Secondary Sequence: indicative * **cum** Circumstantial * Primary Sequence: indicative * Secondary Sequence: subjunctive * **cum** Causal * Primary Sequence: subjunctive * Secondary Sequence: subjunctive * **cum** Concessive * Primary Sequence: subjunctive * Secondary Sequence: subjunctive

Answer 46

When the **cum** clause refers strictly to *time* and its action is coordinate with that of the main verb, it is a *temporal* **cum** *clause* and **cum** is translated 'when'. Such clauses have their verbs in the *indicative*. If the **cum** clause states the *circumstances* in which the action of the main verb takes place, it is called a *circumstantial* **cum** *clause* and **cum** is translated 'when'. When the action in such **cum** clauses refers to *present* or *future* time, the *indicative* is used. When the action in the circumstantial **cum** clause is in *past* time, the *subjunctive* is used.

Answer 47

When **cum** translates as 'since' or 'because', the **cum** clause is *causal*. Causal **cum** clauses draw a causal connection between the two clauses. The verb in *causal* **cum** *clauses* is *always* in the subjunctive. Translate into English as an indicative.

Answer 48

When **cum** translates 'although', the **cum** clause is *concessive*. Frequently, **tamen**, 'nevertheless', in the main clause indicates that **cum** is to be taken as 'although', but the **tamen** is not always there. *Concessive* **cum** *clauses always* have their verbs in the *subjunctive*.

Answer 49

If **cum** means 'whenever', it takes a *perfect* indicative when the main verb is present, a *pluperfect* indicative when the main verb is imperfect. Exempla: * Cum tē vīdī, fēlix sum (Whenever I see you, I am happy) * Cum tē vīderam, fēlix eram (Whenever I saw you, I was happy)

Answer 50

The ablative absolute construction can be expressed with **cum** clauses with no change in meaning. Note: whereas the ablative absolute with the perfect participle must be expressed in the passive because of the lack of a perfect active participle and also in order to avoid concordance of subjects in both clauses, the **cum** clause may use the active voice.

Answer 51

1. Temporal 1. **ut**, **ubi**, **postquam**, **quandō** (+ indicative) 2. Translate: "When, after" 2. Causal 1. **quoniam**, **quandō** (almost always with indicative) 2. **quod**, **quia** (+ indicative or subjunctive) 3. Translate: "Since, because" 3. Concessive 1. **quamquam**, **etsī** (+ indicative) 2. **quamvīs** (+ subjunctive) 3. Translate: "Although"

Answer 52

Several conjunctions take either the indicative or the subjunctive. The distinction is based on the difference between these two moods: the indicative is the mood of fact, while the subjunctive is the mood of probability, intention, or idea. 1. **quod** or **quia**, 'because' 1. Takes either the indicative ("actually"--i.e., the speaker believes and accepts responsibility for the statement) or subjunctive ("allegedly"--i.e., the speaker does not accept responsibility for the statement and does not express it as a fact; it is within the realm of probability or idea). This use of **quod** with the subjunctive is referred to as the ***quod*** *clause of alleged reason* 2. **dum** or **dōnec**, 'while, as long as, until' 1. When referring merely to a temporal idea, it takes the indicative. 1. Note: **dum**, 'while', normally uses the present indicative (the so-called historical present) to denote continued action in past time. 2. When a notion of purpose, intention, or a future idea is involved, the subjunctive is used. 3. **antequam** or **priusquam**, 'before' 1. When referring strictly to time, they take the indicative. 2. When purpose, intention, or idea is involved, the subjunctive is used in secondary sequence. 1. In primary sequence, the present or future perfect indicative is generally used (less frequently, the present subjunctive). 3. Frequently, **ante**/**quam** or **prius**/**quam** is split (tmesis) so as to give the sentence a greater degree of cohesion.

Answer 53

**Dum**, **modo**, and **dummodo** (all meaning 'if only, provided that, as long as') are used to express conditional wishes with the present and imperfect subjunctives. The negative uses **nē**. These are often used with a jussive or imperative.

Answer 54

The accusative case is sometimes used in exclamations. The accusative case is used by itself in exclamations. Exempla: * Ō tempora! Ō mōrēs! (Oh, the times, oh, the customs!) * Puerum miserum! (Unhappy boy!)

Answer 55

It has been said that the infinitive is a neuter *verbal noun* and that it may be used as the subject of the verb. Yet, the infinitive retains its character as a verb by taking an object or by being modified by an adverb. When the verbal noun is not functioning as the subject of a verb, a specific form, called the *gerund*, is used. The infinitive supplies the nominative of the gerund. The other cases are formed by adding -**nd** to the present stem of the verb (for i-stems of the third conjugation and for all fourth conjugation verbs, an -**ie** will appear before the -**nd**), plus the neuter endings of the second declension. These forms are in fact the same as the neuter singular of the future passive participle, except that there is no nominative. The gerund has no plural. The gerund functions in the various grammatical cases like any other noun, but it still retains its verbal force and so may control an object and may be modified by an adverb. Intransitive verbs which govern the dative case will do so in the gerund form as well. Translate: "---*ing*"

Answer 56

The gerundive is a verbal adjective and is sometimes called the future passive participle. Although the gerund may govern an object, in such instances Latin frequently prefers to use a gerundive construction instead, except when that object is a neuter adjective or pronoun.

Answer 57

Purpose may be expressed by the gerund and gerundive in two common ways: 1. **Ad** + the Accusative 1. **Ad** + the accusative of the gerund may express purpose. 2. The gerund, as always, may take a direct object. 3. But when the gerund would take an object, the gerundive construction is preferred in Latin. 2. Genitive Followed by **causā** 1. ****The genitive of the gerund, followed by **causā**, may be used to express purpose. 2. Again, when the gerund would govern an object (except in the case of netuer adjectives or pronouns), the gerundive construction is preferred. 3. The reason for the exception in the case of neuter adjectives or pronouns is the confusion in gender which might arise between masculine or neuter. 1. Compare: 1. Multa videndī causā venit. 2. Multōrum videndōrum causā venit. (Many *things* or many *men*???)

Answer 58

A small number of verbs in Latin are found only in the third person singular, the infinitive, and sometimes the participle because of their peculiar meanings. Such verbs are called *impersonal* verbs because of their lack of a personal subject and require in English the word "it" to function as the subject. The constructions with these verbs are as follows: 1. With Accusative and Infinitive 1. **oportet; necesse est; licet** 2. With Dative and Infinitive 1. **necesse est; licet** 3. With Subjunctive Clause Introduced by **ut** (Expressed or Implied) 1. **necesse est; licet** 4. With Objective Genitive and Accusative 1. **miseret; piget; taedet; paenitet; pudet** 2. These impersonals take the genitive of the thing which arouses the feeling and the accusative of the person concerned. 3. Instead of a genitive, an infinitive, a **quod** clause, or a neuter pronoun is sometimes used to express the source of the feeling. When this occurs, the infinitive, the **quod** clause, or the neuter pronoun is the subject of the verb. 1. **Legere** mē taedet (*Reading* bores me)

Answer 59

These two impersonals, which mean 'it concerns, it is of interest, it is in the interest of', take the genitive of the person concerned and an infinitive, an **ut** clause, or a demonstrative pronoun in the neuter singular to express the thing which is of concern. But instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the following adjectival forms in the ablative case are used: **meā, tuā, suā, nostrā, vestrā**.

Answer 60

Verbs or expressions of fearing take subjunctive clauses introduced by **nē** for the positive and **ut** for the negative. While this may seem a curious reversal, it is a logical construction. In the earliest stages of the language, the constructions were *paratactic; parataxis* is the absence of subordination and the arrangement of several clauses side by side. Timeō. Ut veniat! (I fear. I wish he would come!) As the language developed, the constructions became *hypotactic; hypotaxis* is the subordination of one clause to another. Timeō **ut** veniat (I fear that he is not coming) Clauses of fearing follow the normal rules for sequence of tenses. While the present subjunctive may refer to an act that is either contemporaneous with or subsequent to the action of the main verb, when stress is laid on the subsequence (futurity) of the action, the active periphrastic is occasionally used. Sometimes, **nē...non** are found instead of **ut** to introduce a negative clause of fearing.

Answer 61

When **dubitō** (1) means 'hesitate', it takes an infinitive. When it means 'doubt', it takes the following constructions which are regularly used with words or expressions of doubting: 1. When the word or expression of doubting is *positive* (as opposed to negative), it introduces an indirect question. 1. Translate: "Doubt whether (that)..." 2. When the word or expression of doubting is *negative*, a subjunctive clause is introduced by **quīn** (translated literally 'but that') is used. 1. Translate: "Do not doubt (but) that..." A virtual negative is an implied negative.

Answer 62

To express prohibition or prevention, the following constructions are used: 1. **Vetō, -āre, -uī, -itus**, 'forbid', and **prohibeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus**, 'prohibit', take a simple infinitive. 2. The following verbs are among those which take a subjunctive construction: 1. **dēterreō, -ēre, -uī, -itus**, 'deter, prevent' 2. **impediō, -īre, -īvī (-iī), -ītus**, 'prevent' 3. **obstō, -āre, -stitī, -stātus**, 'hinder, stand in the way of' 3. If the verb of prevention is *positive*, the subjunctive clause will be introduced by **quōminus** ( = **quō minus**, 'by which the less') or **nē**, 'in order that not'. These clauses are analogous to relative clauses of purpose introduced by **quō**, and **quōminus** in effect is standing for **ut eō minus**, 'in order that by this the less'. When the verb of prevention is *negative*, the subjunctive clause is introduced by **quōminus**, 'by which the less', or **quīn**, 'but that'.

Answer 63

The gerund is a verbal noun. There is another variety of verbal noun in Latin called the *supine*. As we might expect, it is neuter singular, but it has only two cases, the accusative and the ablative, each of which has a specific use. The supine, then, is not nearly as versitile as the gerund and, in fact, occurs infrequently. It is formed on the fourth principal part of the verb. optātum, optātū implētum, implētū inceptum, inceptū sēnsum, sēnsū The *accusative* of the supine, ending in **-um**, is used without a preposition after verbs of motion to express *purpose*. The *ablative* of the supine, ending in **-ū**, is used with some adjectives as an *ablative of respect*.

Answer 64

Relative clauses in indirect statements usually have their verbs in the subjunctive. This is also frequently the case with relative and other subordinate clauses within clauses whose verbs are in the subjunctive, provided that the subordinate clause is an integral part of the idea of the main clause. The verbs in such subordinate clauses are said to be *attracted* into the subjunctive by the sheer force of the verb that governs the larger construction.

Answer 65

Although Latin has a future passive infinitive, it is not commonly found. When a future passive idea had to be expressed in indirect statement, a periphrasis was used. The futurity is expressed in **futūrum esse**; the verbal idea in the English indirect statement is expressed in an **ut** clause of result (**ut** + subjunctive). **Fore** is an alternate way of expressing **futūrum esse**. This construction is also used to stand for an *active* idea in future time when the verb in question has no fourth principal part and therefore can have no future active infinitive. **Possum, posse, potuī** has no fourth principal part and so no future active infinitive; the periphrasis is essential in this case to express the future idea.

Answer 66

Occassionally an infinitive is used in narrative passages instead of a finite verb where the English demands a finite verb. Such infinitives are called *historical* infinitives and emphasize the pure verbal action rather than the agents of that action. In viīs urbis heri **currere, clāmāre,** fortiter **pūgnāre**. (In the streets of the city yesterday [there were] *running, shouting, fighting* bravely.) The historical infinitive, in which one can most clearly see the function of the infinitive as a pure verbal noun, is one of the earliest uses of the infinitive. The subject of an historical infinitive is in the *nominative* case.

Answer 67

Forms of the perfect tenses which have **-vi-** or **-ve-** in them are sometimes shortened or syncopated by dropping the **-vi-** or **-ve-**. Exempla: * **amāstī** FOR **amāvistī** * **amārunt** FOR **amāvērunt**

Answer 68

The ending **-ēre** is sometimes used in poetry and high style prose as an alternate for **-ērunt**. Exemplum: **amāvēre** FOR **amāvērunt**

Answer 69

The ablative case is regularly used in Latin to express *respect* or *specification*. Occasionally in poetry and in late Latin the accusative is found with this function. This is really a Greek construction which has been borrowed by the Latin. The Greek verb has three voices: active, passive, and middle. The middle voice often has the same forms as the passive, but it is used in a reflexive sense; that is, the subject at the same time performs the action and experiences its effect(s). The accusative of respect is frequently used to express the *part affected*. Translate: "With respect to..."

Answer 70

Closely allied to the accusative of respect is the so-called *adverbial accusative*. What is in fact an accusative of respect functions adverbially. Translate: "With respect to..."

Answer 71

The genitive is frequently used with verbs and expressions of remembering and forgetting. Note that the accusative is also found with verbs and expressions of remembering and forgetting.

Answer 72

A few neuter adjectives and some nouns implying utter worthlessness, such as **as****, assis**, M., 'as' (a small denomination of money),**floccus, -ī**, M., 'a lock of wool', and**nihilum, -ī,** N., 'nothing', are sometimes used in the genitive case to express the value of a person, thing, or situation when that value is not specifically determined or is indefinite. This use of the genitive is generally found with verbs meaning 'consider', 'reckon', and 'value'. **Magnī** mē habet (He considers me *of* great [value])

Answer 73

The instrumental ablative (ablative of means) is used with some expressions to express the price of something.

Answer 74

A substantive clause introduced by **quod**, 'the fact that', and with its verb in the indicative is sometimes used as the subject or object of another verb, or in apposition to the subject of that other verb.