40% mcq w1-4 Flashcards
1
Q
What does behaviourism state?
A
cannot study what is not directly observable
2
Q
What are the 8 internal processes?
A
attention,
memory,
imagery,
perception,
mental representation,
language,
problem-solving,
motivation
3
Q
How do we process knowledge or info? (4)
A
Acquisition
Storage
Transformation
Use
4
Q
What does experimental cognitive psychology studies?
A
bhv during experiment manipulations of cog tasks
5
Q
What are the 6 steps for processing info?
A
Stimulus
attention
perception
thought processes
decision
response or action
6
Q
What are the 6 features of processing?
A
top-down
bottom up
parallel
serial
hard wired
learned
7
Q
What is top down processing? (2)
A
smtg already in our brain, could lead to biases or mistakes
8
Q
What is bottom up processing?
A
info from environment - colours, shape, sounds, smells - not always very clear
9
Q
What does our brain typically use when we process information?
A
Parallel - many processes at the same time
10
Q
What is serial processing?
A
one process at a time
11
Q
What is paradigm specific?
A
findings are narrow in scope and applicability
12
Q
What is task impurity?
A
tasks used to measure specific cognitive processes are rarely “pure.”
Often involve multiple overlapping processes
13
Q
What is double dissociation?
A
finding that some brain-damaged individuals have intact performance on one task but poor performance on another task whereas other individuals exhibit the opposite pattern
14
Q
What does anatomical modularity assumption states?
A
Diff processes belong to distinct brain regions
15
Q
What are the strengths of cognitive neuropsychology? (3)
A
Casual links can be shown between brain damage and task perf
Patterns of impairment prov strong evidence, promote theoretical advances
Bridges cognitive psych and cog neurosci
16
Q
Why are cognitive neuropsychology’s assumptions might not be supported? (5)
A
individual different
interconnectivity
compensatory strategies
brain plasticity
distributed processing (neural network)
17
Q
What does compensatory strategies state?
A
Neuropsych patients develop alter ways to perform tasks to compensate for cognitive deficit
18
Q
What is localised processing?
A
anatomical modularity, assumes that processing that occurs to a specific cognitive task is localised, specific to a particular area / module
19
Q
We are a combination of what?
A
combination of localised & distributed processing
20
Q
What is cognitive neuroscience?
A
study the brain as well as bhv while ppl engage in cognitive tasks
21
Q
What are the strengths of cognitive neuroscience? (4)
A
Bridge problems that have stopped us from unable to make processes
Connects brain and mind research
Robust date for neural correlates of bhv
Can be refined and updated
22
Q
What is blobology?
A
describe the practice of focusing too much on colorful blobs seen in brain scans (like fMRI images) without fully understanding the deeper biological or functional meaning behind them
23
Q
What is ecological validity
A
extent to which laboratory findings are applicable to everyday life
24
Q
What is computational cognitive science?
A
Studies comp simulations of human cognitive processing through precise models or algorithms
25
What are the 3 concepts of computational cog sci?
production systems
connectionist
backward propagation.
26
What does production systems use?
conditional rules (if..then)
27
What does connectionist means? (2)
Parallel distributed processing / neural systems
Interconnected nodes can become ‘active’ and spread activation to connected nodes
28
What is backward propagation?
Compares pattern of activation to ‘correct’ activation for a given problem (allows for learning)
29
What is social cognition?
role of cognitive processes in influencing indiv bhv in social situations
Subsequent bhv is likely to be influenced by your cognitive interpretation of one’s laughter
30
What was the conclusion for bat and ball test?
we can fail to think effectively even on relatively simple problems
31
How does electrophysiological technique works?
Recording of electrical signals generated by the brain
32
How does patterns of cognitive impairment shown by brain-damage patients help us understand cognitive functioning?
inform us about normal cognitive functioning and the brain areas responsible for various cognitive processes.
33
What did John Watson argued?
psychologists should focus on stimuli (aspects of the immediate situation) & responses
34
What are the terms that behaviourism should never use? (5)
consciousness,
mental states,
mind,
content,
introspectively verifiable
35
What is cascade processing?
later stages of processing are initiated before one or more earlier stages have finished.
36
What is the meaning of implacable experimenter?
experimental research in which the experimenter’s behaviour is uninfluenced by the participant’s behaviour
37
What is a lesion?
structural damage to the brain caused by injury or disease
38
What did neuropsychology state that others disagree?
cognitive neuropsychology is not about the brain: it is about information-processing models of cognition
39
What type of impairment does amnesic patients have?
impaired on many long term memory tasks
40
What is diaschisis?
distant neurophysiological changes directly caused by a localised injury
41
What can brain lesion lead to?
Brain lesion can lead to changes in the functional connectivity between the area of the lesion and distant, intact brain areas
42
What are the four lobes in brain hemisphere?
frontal; parietal; temporal; and occipital
43
What is the top part of the brain area called?
dorsal (superior)
44
What is the bottom part of the brain area called?
ventral (inferior)
45
What is the front part of the brain area called?
anterior (rostral)
46
What is the other name for Brodmann Area 17 (BA17)? What is it associated with?
primary visual cortex, early processing of visual stimuli
47
What is a connectome?
comprehensive wiring diagram of neural connections within the brain
48
What is global efficiency?
efficiency of the overall brain network
49
What is nodal efficiency?
efficiency of specific hubs or nodes
50
What does Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex do?
performance monitoring
51
What does anterior insula do?
detection of task- relevant stimuli
52
What are the major techniques used to study the brain? (8)
Single-unit recording / Single Cell Recording
Event-related potentials (ERPs)
Positron emission tomography (PET)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Magneto-encephalography (MEG)
Event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (efMRI)
53
What is Positron emission tomography?
Radioactively labelled water (the tracer) is injected into the body and rapidly gathers in the brain’s blood vessels.
When part of the cortex becomes active, the labelled water moves there rapidly
A scanning device measures the positrons emitted from the radioactive water which leads to pictures of the activity levels in different brain regions.
54
How does fMRI works?
using an MRI scanner containing a very large magnet (weighing up to 11 tons)
Functional MRI (fMRI) detects brain activity by measuring changes in blood oxygen levels
55
What does fMRI measures?
BOLD (blood oxygen-level-dependent) signals
56
How does Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) functions?
A coil is placed close to the participant’s head and a very brief pulse of current is run through it
Produces a short-lived magnetic field that generally (but not always) inhibits processing in the brain area affected.
57
What is Anodal tDCS?
increases cortical excitability and generally enhances performance
58
What is Cathodal tDCS?
decreases cortical excitability and mostly impairs performance
59
What is default mode network?
interconnected set of brain regions (including the ventral medial and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, and the posterior cingulate cortex) more active during rest than during performance of a task
60
What are the functions of default mode network? (3)
mind wandering, worrying and daydreaming.
61
What is neuroenchantment?
exaggerating the importance of neuroimaging to our understanding of cognition.
62
What is distributed representations?
a given word or object is represented by the pattern of activation across many nodes or units
Exhibit learning
63
What is cognitive architecture?
comprehensive framework for understanding human cognition in the form of a computer program.
64
What does connectionism compares?
actual output against the correct output
If there is a discrepancy, the model learns to adjust the weights of the connections between the nodes to produce the correct output
65
What is basic units?
The brain is made up of neurons that communicate through synapses, while neural networks have nodes connected by weighted links.
66
What is superposition catastrophe?
how the brain (or artificial neural networks) balances efficient storage of vast amounts of information while minimizing interference
67
What is working memory?
a limited capacity system used in the processing and brief holding of info
68
What are the 4 modules of special importance?
retrieval
imaginal
goal
procedural
69
Why does overfitting occurs in some computational models?
a model seems to account very well for a given data set but is poor at predicting new data
70
Why does procedural memory have special importance?
access to the whole of working memory
71
Where is the proposed location of retrieval module?
inferior ventrolateral prefrontal cortex
72
Where is procedural module located?
head of the caudate nucleus within the basal ganglia
73
What does imaginal module do?
transforms problem representations to assist in problem solving
74
What does goal module do?
keeps tracks of an individual’s intentions and controls information processing
75
What can procedural memory do? (4)
modify working memory
initiate the retrieval of knowledge from long-term declarative memory,
initiate motor actions,
provide top-down influence to perception
76
What is the bonini paradox?
The more detailed a model gets, the as complex and hard to understand as the real thing
77
How do we process info? (3)
reception, transduction, coding
78
What is physical energy converted into during the transduction stage?
an electrochemical pattern in the neurons
79
What are the 5 parts of the eye?
lens, retina, rods, cones, fovea
80
What is the function of retina?
Responsible for transduction and early processing
Layer of cells at rear of eye
81
What does fovea do?
Concentration of cones responsible for detailed central version
82
What are the characteristics of rods? (4)
Peripheral
High convergence : many neurons connect to the next neuron
High sensitivity
Night vision & movement
83
what are the characteristics of cones? (4)
Central
Low convergence
Low sensitivity
Colour vision and acuity
84
How does ganglion cells connect to the brain?
via optic nerve
85
What do we call when cells connect horizontally?
lateral inhibition
86
Where does complex processing starts?
retina
87
What is parvocellular pathway sensitive to? (2)
sensitive to colour and detail
Most input come from cones
88
What is the function of magnocellular pathway (M)? (3)
sensitive to motion
Project to dorsal pathway
Input come from rods
89
What are the characteristics of Retina geniculate striate RGN? (3)
visual field, receptive field, retinotopic mapping
90
What is retinotopic mapping?
Neurons next to each other along the RGN correspond to receptors next to each other in the retina and locations next to each other in visual field
91
What is hierarchical Processing
Idea that processing occurs from simple characteristics of the stimulus (colours, edges, contrast, location) to more complex processing (integrating the features into an object or scene, meaning, conscious awareness)
92
What is V1 / V2 in charge of?
early stage of visual perception
93
What is V3 / V3A in charge of?
Responsive to form (esp moving objects)
94
What is V4 responsive to?
colour
95
What is V5 responsive to?
visual motion
96
What might happen if V1,2,3 is damage?
Neuropsych: Damage wld impair form perception
TMS: impair form perception
97
What is the disease for colour perception impairment?
achromatopsia
98
What is motion blindness called?
akinetopsia
99
How does ventral pathway flows?
From V1 to temporal cortex
100
How does dorsal pathway flow?
From V1 to parietal cortex
101
What does dorsal pathway affect?
how we interact w objects
102
What is ventral pathway specialised for?
object perception (what type of object it is)
103
What happens when one is diagnosed with visual form agnosia?
inability to recognise objects
104
What happens if our posterior parietal cortex is damage?
optic ataxia - inability to use vision to reach and grasp
105
What are the 3 types of illusion
Muller Lyer, Ebinghaus, hollow face
106
What is the Muller Lyer illusion
Two lines of the same length appear different because of the arrow-like tails at their ends
107
What is ebinghaus illusion
Central circle appears larger or smaller depending on the size of the surrounding circles. If surrounded by smaller circles, it looks bigger; if surrounded by larger circles, it looks smaller. This happens because the brain judges size based on surrounding objects
108
What is hollow face illusion?
Concave (hollow) mask of a face appears convex (pushed outward) due to how our brain expects faces to look. Even when the mask is actually turning inward, the brain processes it as a normal face.
109
How do we percept colour?
relative stimulation of different cone types
110
What is opponent process theory?
Neurons are excited by one colour and inhibited by its opponent
111
What does trichromatic theory do?
colour detection
112
What does opponent process theory do?
colour processing
113
What are the 3 colours that our cone cells is sensitive to?
red, green, blue
114
What is retinex theory?
coding that compares light being reflected by different objects
115
What does lighting conditions in a given envir includes?
natural and artificial light sources that affect how objects appear in terms of brightness, color, and shadows
116
How does proper illumination helps us perceive the world? (3)
helps in visibility, depth perception, and overall scene understanding
117
What is monocular cues
depth cues that can be seen with just one eye
118
What is texture gradient?
elements of texture appear smaller, more dense & closer tgt the further away they are
119
What is familiarity?
How our past experiences and knowledge of objects help us perceive depth and size using just one eye
120
What happens when we experience motion parallax?
When you move, objects closer to you appear to move quickly in the opposite direction, while objects farther away seem to move slowly or stay still. This helps your brain judge how far things are
121
What is accomodation?
contraction and expansion of the lens of the eye as you focus on closer or further objects
122
Which muscles of the eyes contract to focus on closer object?
vergence
123
What is the hypothesis for Size distance invariance? (4)
Perceived size is proportional to perceived distance
Use scaling to infer actual size of near and far objects
Info from horizon
Familiarity (top-down)
124
What happens when participants enter Ames Room?
Misperceive size rather than correctly perceiving depth
125
Which 3 theories proposed size weight illusion?
sensorimotor mismatch, readiness for throwing, bayesian coding
126
What is sensorimotor mismatch?
Mismatch between anticipated force needed to grip object and actual force needed
127
What is bayesian coding?
Mathematical tool for decision making that takes into acc probabilities and experience
128
What is depth perception influenced by? (3)
monocular, binocular and oculomotor cues
129
What does visual cortex consists of? (2)
entire occipital cortex at the back of the brain
the temporal and parietal lobes
130
What is retinopy?
retinal receptor cells are mapped to points on the surface of the visual cortex
131
What is lateral inhibition? (3)
reduced activity in one neuron is caused by activity in a neighbouring neuron
Increases the contrast at the edges of objects
Makes it easier to identify the dividing line between objects
132
Which pathway are twice as large as dorsal pathway?
ventral pathway
133
When will cells respond fastest in lateral geniculate nucleus?
when a visual stimulus is presented followed by activation of cells in V1
134
What is allocentric coding
object-centred; coding the locations of objects relative to each other in the ventral stream
135
What is vision for perception ('what') system based on?
ventral stream or pathway
136
What is vision for action (how) system based on?
dorsal stream, pathway used for visually guided action
137
What does ventral stream processing depends on?
fovea (the central part of the retina used for detecting detail)
138
What happen to patients with damage to the dorsal pathway? (2)
reasonably intact vision for perception
severely impaired vision for action
139
What happen to patients with damage to the ventral pathway? (2)
intact vision for action
very poor vision for perception
140
What is optic ataxia? What will happen if one is diagnose with optic ataxia?
damage to the posterior parietal cortex (forming part of the dorsal stream)
poor at making precise visually guided movements although their vision and ability to move their arms are reasonably intact
difficulties in combining information from the dorsal and ventral streams
141
What is proprioception?
(awareness of the position of one’s body parts)
142
What is honi Phenomenon?
The typical apparent size changes when an individual walks along the rear wall of the Ames room are reduced when female observers view a man to whom they are very close emotionally
143
What is open object illusion?
The misperception that objects with missing boundaries are larger than objects the same size without missing boundaries
144
In what circumstances whereby ventral stream would likely be involved in? (4)
Memory is required (e.g., there is a time lag between the offset of the stimulus and the start of the grasping movement)
Time is available to plan the forthcoming movement (e.g., Króliczak et al., 2006).
Planning which movement to make is necessary.
The action is unpractised or awkward.
145
According to the perception action model, when will ventral stream be required?
when they involve conscious processes
146
What is predictive coding?
processing primarily aspects of sensory input that violate the observer’s predictions
147
What are the 3 main qualities associated with colours?
hue, brightness, saturation
148
What does colour vision allows observers to do?
focus rapidly on any aspects of the incoming visual input
149
What happens if individuals with colour deficiency have dichromacy?
one cone class is missing
150
What abnormalities does red-green dichromacy have?
abnormalities in the retinal pigments sensitive to medium or long wavelengths
Individuals with red-green dichromacy differ from intact observers in perceiving far fewer colours
151
What does opponent process provides?
very efficient encoding of chromatic stimuli
152
What is dual process theory?
achromatic [non-colour] channel combines the activity of the medium- and long-wavelength cones
153
What is colour constancy?
tendency for a surface or object to be perceived as having the same colour when there are changes in the wavelengths contained in the illuminant
154
What happens if we lacked colour constancy?
make it very hard to recognise objects rapidly and accurately
155
What is colour constancy influenced by?
our knowledge of the familiar colours of objects
156
What is chromatic adaptation?
observer’s visual sensitivity to a given illuminant decreases over time
157
How does depth perception works?
transformation of the two-dimensional retinal image into perception of a three-dimensional world seen in depth
158
What is stereopsis?
Ability to perceive the world three dimensionally
very powerful at short distances
159
What is size constancy?
tendency for any given object to appear the same size whether its size in the retinal image is large or small
160
Under what circumstances will size judgements be more accurate? (2)
object categories at close viewing range
objects having an invariant 不变的 size than those having a variable size
161
What is perceptual segregation?
separating visual input into individual objects
162
What is the law of pragnanz?
Complex forms are simplified to help us make sense of the world
top down processes
163
What is emergent properties
whole is different to the sum of its part
164
What is illusory contours?
brain "fills in" missing information to create the appearance of a complete shape
165
What are the 4 factors in Gestalt Laws of Perceptual organisation?
proximity, similarity, good continuation, closure
166
What is configural superiority effect? How does it effect performance?
How quickly can participants spot the odd one out
has emergent properties = faster perf
‘
does not have emergent properties = slower perf
167
What are the 4 new principles of perceptual org?
accentuation
contour segment orientation
uniform connectedness
common fate
168
What is accentuation?
how certain visual elements stand out due to differences in contrast, brightness, color, or size, making them more noticeable than surrounding elements
169
What is contour segment orientation? (2)
the way individual parts of an object's outline or edges are aligned
Segments of contours are adjacent tend to have a more similar orientation than contours further apart
170
What is uniform connectedness?
Stimuli w common characteristics / visually connected perceived as belonging to the same object
171
How does visual processing works?
Proceeds from coarse (low spatial frequencies) to fine (high spatial frequencies)
172
What does 2 ½-D sketch
incorporates and uses? (6)
incorporates depth and orientation of surfaces
Uses shading, texture, motion, binocular disparity
173
What does viewpoint invariant means?
Rep of an object allow it to be recognised regardless of the angle
174
What does Marr's theory describes?
how we go from seeing simple features to building a complete, viewpoint-independent 3D model of an object.
175
T/F Object recognition is viewpoint invariant.
True
176
What are the 4 stages of Biederman’s recognition by components theory
Identify location of object’s edges (edge extraction)
Identify geons
Identify geons arrangement
Identify object
177
What is semantic priming?
when exposure to one word or concept makes it easier and faster to recognize or process a related word or concept.
178
What is holistic processing?
Involves parallel processing of facial features and relationships between those features
We process face as a whole
179
What are the 3 effects involve in face recognition
Face inversion effect
part whole effect
composite effect
180
How does part whole effect influence face recognition?
Recognition of a face part more accurate when presented within the whole face
181
What is the scientific name for face blindness?
prosopagnosia
182
What are the two types of face blindness?
acquired and developmental
183
What is the Fusiform face area?
More sensitive to faces than other objects in most people
184
What does the expertise hypothesis state?
Brain areas and processes responsible for face recog can be used for processing non-face objects where we process expertise
185
What is aphantasia?
Inability to create visual imagery
186
What is the anton's syndrome?
Blind indiv misinterpret visual imagery as visual perception
187
What are hallucinations?
Perception-like experiences without an appropriate stimulus
188
What is visual imagery?
when you imagine something in your mind without actually seeing it
189
What is depictive representation?
Imagery map characteristic (eg, spatial arrangement) of perceptual stimuli
190
What is binocular rivalry?
Special goggles present diff image to each eyes, we tend to not see both at the same time
191
What does Pylyshyn's propositional theory suggests?
Pylyshyn believes that our mind thinks in "mental sentences" or abstract representations, not pictures.
192
What is encoding?
typically progresses from lower-level representations of simple features to higher-level representations of more complex features
neuronal responses triggered by visual stimuli
193
What is decoding?
conscious perception of those stimuli
194
What are the characteristics of simple cell? (2)
“on” and “off” rectangular regions
respond most to dark bars in a light field, light bars in a dark field, or straight edges between areas of light and dark
195
What are the characteristics of complex cells? (4)
resemble simple cells in responding maximally to straight-line stimuli in a particular orientation
have large receptive fields
respond more to moving contours
Each complex cell is driven by several simple cells having the same orientation preference and closely overlapping receptive fields (Alonso & Martinez, 1998
196
What did Hubel and Wiesel suggests regarding our organised visual system?
more complex visual features are built (bottom-up) from more simple ones
197
In our end-stopped cells, what does responsiveness depends on?
stimulus length and orientation
198
Which 4 factors determines which region is identified as the figure and which as the ground?
Regions that are:
convex (curving outwards)
Small
surrounded
symmetrical
199
How can we perceive object boundaries more accurately?
when several cues were combined than any single cue in isolation
200
When will attention more likely be required?
processes involved in perceptual grouping were relatively complex
201
What is figure ground segregation?
how we separate objects from their background in what we see
202
What did Gestaltists failed to realise?
perceptual grouping and figure ground segregation depend on complex interactions between basic (and possibly innate) processes and past experience
203
How does visual processing generally proceeds?
from the retina through several areas including the lateral geniculate nucleus, V1, V2 and V4, culminating in the inferotemporal cortex
204
What might happen if our dorsal stream is damaged?
object recognition can be reasonably intact
205
How does coarse-to-fine processing occur?
Numerous cells in the primary visual cortex respond to high spatial frequencies and capture fine detail in the visual image
Numerous others respond to low spatial frequencies & capture coarse information in the visual image
206
How are low spatial frequency info usually transmitted?
transmitted rapidly to higher-order brain areas via the fast magnocellular system using the dorsal visual stream
207
How are high spatial frequency info usually transmitted?
transmitted relatively slowly via the parvocellular system using the ventral visual stream
208
What is spatial frequency info often related to?
motion and/or spatial location
209
What is high spatial frequency info often related to? (3)
often relating to colour, shape and other aspects of object recognition
210
What is our central / fovea vision dominated by?
higher spatial frequencies
211
How does the use of low and high spatial frequency information in visual processing adapt to different tasks?
The use of spatial frequency information is flexible and adjusts based on task demands
212
Why has Marr’s theoretical approach been so influential?
successfully combined ideas from neurophysiology, anatomy and computer vision
213
What did Biederman assumed?
objects’ geons of a visual object are constructed from various non-accidental or invariant properties
214
What are the processes that are more important when it comes to imagery?
top down processing
215
What are the processes that are more important when it comes to perception?
bottom up processing
216
What did Schmidtmann et al. suggests regarding convexity information?
more important because convexities reveal an object’s outer boundary
217
What does changes in viewpoint had no effect on?
no effect on speed of object recognition when categorisation was required
218
What does orientation influences brain activity early in processing suggests?
initial processing is viewpoint dependent
219
What is recurrent processing
Recurrent processing (a form of top-down processing) from higher to lower brain areas is necessary for conscious visual perception
220
When will we activate greater part of the orbitofrontal cortex?
when object recognition is hard
221
Where does top down processes involve in?
orbitofrontal cortex
222
Where does bottom up processes involve in?
ventral visual stream
223
What is the function of orbitofrontal cortex?
helps pick the most relevant guess by using context and ignoring less useful ones.
224
Why are we better at recognising objects when context is relevant?
because it matched the setting
225
What are the 2 top down processes that influence object recognition
Making guesses early – Before fully seeing an object, our brain already forms possible ideas about what it might be
Focusing on key details – We pay attention to the most important parts of an object that help us recognize it faster.
226
How does top down processes influence our attention?
influence our allocation of attention
227
Why is holistic processing faster in processing facial features?
facial features are processed in parallel rather than individually
228
Why is face recognition hard?
involves distinguishing among broadly similar category members
229
What does prosopagnosic show evidence of?
covert recognition (face processing without conscious awareness)
230
Which areas are face selective? (3)
fusiform face area, occipital face area (OFA), the superior temporal sulcus (STS)
231
Why is expertise so important in determining face and object processing?
One reason is that expertise leads to greater holistic or integrated processing
232
What are the 3 main predictions follow from the expertise hypothesis?
Holistic processing isn’t just for faces—it applies to any objects where a person has expertise
The fusiform face area (FFA) activates strongly when recognizing objects in an expert category, not just faces
Interference occurs when processing both faces and objects of expertise, since they rely on similar brain mechanisms.
233
What is composite effect?
refers to how our brain processes faces as a whole rather than as separate parts
234
What might we not be necessarily aware of?
images as mental representations
235
What is mental representation?
an internal cognitive symbol representing aspects of external reality
236
If visual imagery and perception are similar, why do we very rarely confuse them?
we are generally aware of deliberately constructing images
images contain much less detail
237
What does visual hallucinations in schizopherenics often associated with?
often associated with activity in the primary visual cortex
238
What is the Charles Bonnet syndrome?
condition in which individuals with eye disease form vivid and detailed visual hallucinations sometimes mistaken for visual perception
239
What happens when patients hallucinate?
they have increased activity in brain areas specialised for visual processing (e.g., hallucinations in colour are associated with activity in colour-processing areas)
240
What happens when part of retina is damaged?
remaining healthy areas become overly sensitive (hyperexcitable) in the early visual cortex
241
Why is visual imagery useful? 3
visual imagery “allows us to answer ‘what if’ questions by making explicit
accessible the likely consequences of being in a specific situation / performing a specific action
visual imagery supports numerous cognitive functions
242
What cognitive functions does visual imagery supports? (5)
creative insight
attentional search
guiding deliberate action
short-term memory storage
long-term memory retrieval
243
Where are depictive representations formed?
created in early visual cortex (BA17 and BA18) within a visual buffer
244
What is the visual buffer?
short term store for visual information only
245
What is an attention window
selecting some visual information in the visual buffer and passing it on to other brain areas for further processing
246
Where is shape information stored in?
e inferior temporal lobe
247
What is tacit knowledge?
unconscious understanding of how things should look in imagined situations based on past experience.
248
What does performance on an imagery task relies on?
relies on relevant stored knowledge rather than visual images
249
What happens when brain activity in imagery and perception overlap a lot?
the clearer and more vivid the imagined images become.
250
A nearly blind patient had no primary visual cortex, what can the patient still produce?
vivid visual imagery and his pattern of cortical activation when engaged in visual imagery resembled that of healthy controls
251
What happens when we have intact visual imagery?
had greater connectivity between some visual networks in the brain than most individuals
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What does visual perception mostly involves? (2)
bottom-up processes triggered by the stimulus
brain areas involved in early visual processing are more important for perception
253
What does visual imagery primarily involves? (2)
top-down processes based on object knowledge
brain areas associated with storage of information about visual objects are more important for imagery
254
What is exogenous cues (external triggers)?
external signals that grab our attention automatically
come from the environment
don't require conscious effort to notice
255
What is endogenous cues (internal triggers)?
controlled by our intentions
rely on our own thoughts, goals, or decisions to focus on something
256
What is selective auditory attention?
Tune in to a particular auditorium information while tuning out other info
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What is cocktail party effect?
Tune into one conversation and tune out others
258
What is dichotic listening task?
Participants presented w a diff auditory message to each ear and asked to shadow one msg
259
What is Broadbent selective filter theory?
Filter occurs early in processing
Based on physical characteristics (tone of voice, pitch, location of stimulus) of the stimulus before cont to detector
Other input remains briefly in a sensory buffer & is rejected unless attended rapidly
260
What is Triesman’s attenuation model? (3)
Unimportant info is weakened, not blocked, so important things can still grab our attention
Unattended info is attenuated after sensory register
Flexible filter:
Stimuli analysed hierarchically from physical cues to structure and meaning
Context appropriate stimuli are more likely to make it thru the bottleneck
If we expect certain info, more likely to get thru the bottleneck
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What is Deutsch & Deutsch theory?
Our brain processes all incoming information (sounds, sights, etc.), but we only focus on what is most important at the final stage
Attention is selected late in processing (we analyse meaning first and then decide what to focus on)
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What did Eriksen & Eriksen identified during the Response competition flanker task?
Incongruent distractor slowed responses compared to congruent distractors
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How did Tipper & driver found evidence for late selection during the negative priming task? (2)
Ignored Information is Still Processed
Even when you ignore an object (like a blue banana), your brain still registers it.
This means all information is processed before your brain decides what to focus on
Suppression Happens After Meaning is Understood
When the previously ignored object becomes important later, you take longer to respond to it.
This shows your brain recognized its meaning first before actively suppressing it.
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What did the perceptual load theory states?
Perceptual processing cont auto until full capacity is rch
We dont cont to process unattended stimuli
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What is goal directed (dorsal) attentional network guided by? Which part of brain does it activates?
expectations, knowledge and goals
Superior parietal lobule (SPL)
266
What does spatial cueing task help study?
how attention is guided in space and how we react when our brain is given hints about where to focus.
267
What is endogenous system controlled by? (2)
individual intentions and expectations
Involved when central cues are presented
268
When is exogenous system involved?
uninformative peripheral cues are presented
269
What do we attend to?
(3)
Space (location)
Object
Feature
270
What does the spider phobics experiment found?
Our brain’s focus (based on what we're afraid of or interested in) can direct our attention to certain things
This explains attentional bias, where people notice certain things more because of their emotions or interests.
271
What is salient stimuli?
Things that catch our focus easily because they are different or important in some way.
272
What is high perceptual load? (2)
The task is complex and requires full focus
Your brain is fully occupied, so distractions are filtered out.
273
When will perceptual load gets higher / more demanding? (3)
Perceptual scene is busy w many different stimuli
Target stimulus must be found amongst similar stimuli (eg, where’s wally)
Fine discrimination of stimulus features is needed (eg, professional tasters)
274
What is overt attention?
Attention consistent w eye gaze direction
275
What is inattentional blindness?
Failure to perceive an unexpected stimulus in the visual scene
276
Why did the participants failed to notice Barack Obama at fixation point?
This supports top-down attention, meaning our brain controls what we notice based on what we expect or are looking for.
Even if something is right in front of us, we can miss it if our attention is elsewhere
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What is change blindness blindness?
We think we will spot the changes we actually miss
278
What may change blindness be influence by? (3)
attentional processes
peripheral vision
Memory for and comparison of pre and post change visual scene
279
Why do we fail to spot the difference of a visual scene sometimes?
When the memory of the pre-change scene isn’t clear or specific
280
What is peripheral vision?
When we focus on something in the center of our vision, we might miss changes in the periphery (the edges of our vision)
Since peripheral vision doesn’t give us full details, we’re more likely to not notice changes happening in the background or in areas we're not directly looking at.
281
What is change blindness? (2)
the failure to detect changes in visual scenes
requires more complex processing
282
What is inattentional blindness ? (3)
the failure to consciously perceive otherwise salient events when they are not attended
Research on change blindness focuses on dynamic processes over time
occurs when attention is focused on another task
283
What is the saccade technique?
change happens during a rapid eye movement.
284
What is the Flicker paradigm?
brief gap is introduced between the original and changed displays.
285
What is the change blindness tasks require 5 distinct processes for successful detection?
Attention must be paid to the change location
The pre-change visual stimulus at the change location must be encoded into memory
The post-change visual stimulus at the change location must be encoded into memory
The pre- and post-change representations must be compared
The discrepancy between the pre- and post-change representations must be recognised at the conscious level
286
Which 2 approaches causes change blindness? (2)
attentional approach, peripheral vision approach
287
What is attentional approach? (2)
Change detection requires selective attention to be focused on the changing object
Attention is usually limited to a small part of the visual field, making unnoticed changes harder to detect
288
What is token change?
an object was replaced by an object from the same category
289
When will change detection be greater?
when target stimuli are salient or important and so attract attention
generally greater when the to-be-changed object has been fixated (attended to) prior to the change
290
What does narrow focused attention determines?
determines visual experience contradicts our belief that perception spans the entire field of view
291
Why is selective attention account difficult to prove or disprove?
unknown attentional loci and poorly understood effects of attention
292
Which part is the greatest in the centre of the visual field (the fovea)?
Visual acuity
293
Where is visual information often extracted from?
across the entire visual field as predicted by this approach (but not the attentional approach)
294
What is serial dependence?
Our perception is influenced by what we saw before
295
What is perceptual stability?
brain’s ability to keep our view of the world steady despite constant changes in what we see
296
What will detection performance be affected by?
how well peripheral vision works and by failures in selective attention
297
When will change blindness occurs?
visual crowding (too much going on in the scene)
298
When will we have less inattentional blindness?
Without a task demanding attention or creating expectations, there would be much less inattentional blindness
299
What are the essence of attention? (3)
focalisation, concentration, consciousness
300
When will attention be active?
active when controlled in a top-down way by the individual’s goals or expectations
301
What is divided attention?
select certain inputs and avoid being distracted by non-task inputs
302
Which part of brain damage would cause issues with top down processing?
Damage to the superior parietal lobule (dorsal network)
303
Which part of brain damage would cause issues with stimulus driven processing?
damage to the temporo parietal junction (ventral network)
304
What is external attention?
selection and modulation of sensory information
305
What is internal attention?
selection, modulation, and maintenance of internally generated information
306
What does internal attention includes? (4)
task rules,
responses,
long-term memory, or working memory
307
What is sound segregation?
listener must decide which sounds belong together
308
Why is auditory segmentation is harder?
harder to separate sounds (auditory segmentation) than to separate visual features (visual segmentation)
309
What is shadowing
repeating the attended message aloud as it was presented
310
What is schema learning?
Listeners can learn consistent patterns (schemas) in sound to help separate voices.
311
What is temporal coherence?
If one feature of a voice is recognized, others can be identified based on when they occur together
312
What is peripheral vision good for?
temporal tasks
313
When will people perform better during hemifield performance?
when stimuli are in different visual hemifields (left/right) rather than the same one.
314
What did the Zoom lens theory states?
Performance is best when the attention is focused on a small area and worst with a large attended area
315
What is space based attention?
selectively attend to an area or region of space
316
What is perceptual load?
how much attention is needed for a task's sensory demands
317
What does high cognitive load signifies?
Makes it harder to focus on targets and ignore distractions, increases distractibility
318
When will people focus more broadly?
people focus more broadly when perceptual load is low.
319
When will our distraction become worse?
when a task requires high cognitive effort
320
What is the circuit breaking function
The ventral attention network helps redirect focus when something unexpected or distracting occurs
321
What is most likely to trigger the ventral network?
Non-task stimuli similar to the task (like distractors)
conspicuous stimuli
322
What are the 2 causal influences in attention?
Strong top-down influence improves performance
Strong bottom-up influence harms performance (disrupting the top-down system’s focus)
