4. The Cells of The Nervous System Flashcards
Neurons and Glia share many characteristics with cells in general. However, neurons are specially endowed with the ability to communicate precisely and rapidly with other cells at distant sites in the body. What two features give neurons this ability?
First, they have a high degree of morphological and functional asymmetry: Neurons have receptive dendrites at one end and a transmitting axon at the other. This arrangement is the structural basis for unidirectional neuronal signalling.
Second, neurons are both electrically and chemically excitable. The cell membrane of neurons contains specialised proteins—ion channels and receptors—that facilitate the flow of specific inorganic ions, thereby redistributing charge and creating electrical currents that alter the voltage across the membrane. These changes in charge can produce a wave of depolarisation in the form of action potentials along the axon, the usual way a signal travels within the neuron.
Are Glia also excitable in this manner?
Glia are less excitable, but their membranes contain transporter proteins that facilitate the uptake of ions as well as proteins that remove neurotransmitter molecules from the extracellular space, thus regulating neuronal function.
What determines what molecules the neurons make?
Although neurons all inherit the same complement of genes, each expresses a restricted set and thus produces only certain molecules—enzymes, structural proteins, membrane constituents, and secretory products—and not others. In large part this expression depends on the cell’s developmental history. In essence each cell is the set of molecules that it makes.
Where do (1) neurons and (2) glia develop?
Neurons and glia develop from common neuroepithelial cells of the embryonic nervous system and thus share many structural and molecular characteristics.
What are the boundaries of these cells defined by? How does this compare to other biological cells?
The boundaries of these cells are defined by the cell membrane or plasmalemma, which has the asymmetric bilayer structure of all biological membranes and provides a hydrophobic barrier impermeable to most water-soluble substances.
What two main components compose cytosoplasm?
Cytoplasm has two main components: cytosol and membranous organelles.
What is cytosol?
Cytosol is the aqueous phase of cytoplasm. In this phase only a few proteins are actually free in solution. With the exception of some enzymes that catalyse metabolic reactions, most proteins are organised into functional complexes.
What do these ‘functional complexes’ of proteins consist of?
A recent subdiscipline called proteomics has determined that these complexes can consist of many distinct proteins, none of which are covalently linked to another.
For example, the cytoplasmic tail of the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptor, a membrane-associated protein that mediates excitatory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system, is anchored in a large complex of more than 100 scaffold proteins and protein-modifying enzymes.
What are meant by scaffold proteins? **
They are essential regulators of many important signalling pathways.
What are the four major functions of scaffold proteins? **
- Tether signalling components to increase their efficiency (e.g holding signalling components to target proteins)
- They localise signalling components to their specific regions e.g a nucleus, mitochondrian etc
- Coordinate/ regulate positive (excitatory) or negative (inhibitory) feedback functions
- Insulates components from inactivation or degradation (e.g by keeping them apart from enzymes which de-activate them)
Name and describe two organelles in the cytosol and their respective functions
Ribosomes, the organelle on which messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are translated, are made up of several protein subunits.
Proteasomes, large multi-enzyme organelles that degrade ubiquitinated proteins (a process described later), are also present throughout the cytosol of neurons and glia.
What is included in membranus organelles?
Membranous organelles, the second main compo- nent of cytoplasm, include mitochondria and peroxisomes as well as a complex system of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae called the vacuolar apparatus.
What functions do mitochondria and peroxisomes carry out?
Mitochondria and peroxisomes process molecular oxygen.
What is the difference in the functions of mitochondia and peroxisomes?
Mitochondria generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the major molecule by which cellular energy is transferred or spent, whereas peroxisomes prevent accumulation of the strong oxidising agent hydrogen peroxide.
Are these organelles functionally continuous with the vacuolar apparatus? Why or why not?
Thought to be derived from symbiotic organisms that invaded eukaryotic cells early in evolution, these two organelles are not functionally continuous with the vacuolar apparatus.
What is included in the vacuolar apparatus?
The vacuolar apparatus includes the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi complex, secretory vesicles, endosomes, lysosomes, and a multiplicity of transport vesicles that interconnect these various compartments (see docs)
What is meant by the term lumen? **
In biology, a lumen is the inside space of a tubular structure, such as an artery or intestine.
What does the lumen of the vacuolar apparatus correspond to?
Their lumen corresponds topologically to the outside of the cell; consequently, the inner leaflet of their lipid bilayer corresponds to the outer leaflet of the plasmalemma.
What is meant by the endoplasmic reticulum?
A network of membranous tubules within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, continuous with the nuclear membrane. It usually has ribosomes attached and is involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
The major subcompartments of this system are anatomically discontinuous, but they remain functionally connected. How is this possible? Give an example
Membranous and lumenal material is moved from one compartment to another by means of transport vesicles. For example, proteins and phospholipids synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (the portion of the reticulum nearest the nucleus and studded with ribosomes) and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum are transported to the Golgi complex and then to secretory vesicles, which empty their contents when the vesicle membrane fuses with the plasmalemma (a process called exocytosis). This secretory pathway serves to add membranous components to the plasmalemma and also to discharge any contents of the secretory vesicles into the extracellular space.
Whats the difference of mRNA entering a free ribosome or a ribosome in the E.R in a normal cell? **
Free ribosomes typically code for proteins to be used inside the cell, while the proteins generated by ribosomes on the E.R can be transported for use outside the cell as described previously via a vesicle constructed of the ER membrane to the golgi apparatus where it goes through a maturation process so that the fully manufactured protein, ready to be used, then can be transported outside the cell or in the membrane itself
Conversely, how is plasmalemmal membrane taken into the cell?
Conversely, plasmalemmal membrane is taken into the cell in the form of endocytic vesicles (endocytosis). These are incorporated into early endosomes, sorting compartments that are concentrated at the cell’s periphery. The incorporated membrane, which typically contains specific proteins such as receptors, is then either shuttled back to the plasmalemma by vesicles for recycling or directed to late endosomes and eventually to mature lysosomes for degradation.
In what regard does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum act as a store?
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also acts as a regulated internal Ca2+ store throughout the neuronal cytoplasm
What is meant by the nuclear envelope?
A specialised portion of the rough endoplasmic reticulum forms the nuclear envelope, a spherical flattened cisterna that surrounds chromosomal DNA and its associated proteins (histones, transcription factors, polymerases, and isomerases ) and defines the nucleus
What are histones, polymerases, and isomerases mentioned previously? **
A histone is a protein that provides structural support for a chromosome. Each chromosome contains a long molecule of DNA, which must fit into the cell nucleus. To do that, the DNA wraps around complexes of histone proteins, giving the chromosome a more compact shape.
Isomerases: general class of enzymes that convert a molecule from one isomer to another
polymerases: enzymes that catalyse the synthesis of DNA or RNA polymers whose sequence is complementary to the original template
Why is it presumed that the nuclear envelope evolved?
Because the nuclear envelope is continuous with other portions of the endoplasmic reticulum and to the other membranes of the vacuolar apparatus, it is presumed to have evolved as an invagination (being turned inside out or folded back on itself to form a cavity or pouch) of the plasmalemma to ensheathe eukaryotic chromosomes.
What are the purpose of nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope?
The nuclear envelope is interrupted by nuclear pores, where fusion of the inner and outer membranes of the envelope results in the formation of hydrophilic channels through which proteins and RNA are exchanged between the cytoplasm proper and the nuclear cytoplasm.
Even though nucleoplasm and cytoplasm are continuous domains of cytosol, what is required for molecules to pass through the nuclear pores?
Only molecules with molecular weights less than 5,000 can pass through the nuclear pores freely by diffusion. Larger molecules need help. Some proteins have special nuclear localisation signals, domains that are composed of a sequence of basic amino acids (arginine and lysine) that are recognised by soluble proteins called nuclear import receptors (importins). At a nuclear pore this complex is guided into the nucleus by another group of proteins called nucleoporins.
To what extent are the organelles found in the cytoplasm of the cell body found in the dendrites of the cell?
The cytoplasm of the nerve cell body extends into the dendritic tree without functional differentiation. Generally, all organelles in the cytoplasm of the cell body are also present in dendrites, although the densities of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, and lysosomes rapidly diminish with distance from the cell body.
Where is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum prominent in the dendrites?
In dendrites the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is prominent at the base of thin processes called spines, the receptive portion of excitatory synapses.
What are presumed to serve as local protein synthesis in the dendrites?
Concentrations of polyribosomes in dendritic spines are presumed to serve local protein synthesis
To what extent are the organelles found in the cytoplasm of the cell body found in the axon and axon hillock of the cell?
In contrast to the continuity of the cell body and dendrites, a sharp functional boundary exists between the cell body at the axon hillock, where the axon emerges. Ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and the Golgi complex—the organelles that com- prise the main biosynthetic machinery for proteins in the neuron—are generally excluded from axons. Lysosomes and certain proteins are also excluded.
If these organelles are excluded from the axons of neurons, what are these axons ‘rich’ in?
Axons are rich in synaptic vesicles and their precursor membranes.
What roles does the cytoskeleton carry out?
The cytoskeleton determines the shape of a cell and is responsible for the asymmetric distribution of organelles within the cytoplasm.
What is the cytoskeleton composed of?
It includes three filamentous (thread-like) structures: microtubules, neurofilaments, and microfilaments. These filaments and associated proteins account for approximately a quarter of the total protein in the cell.
Describe micro-tubules as they appear in the cytoskeleton
Microtubules form long scaffolds that extend from one end of a neuron to the other and play a key role in developing and maintaining cell shape. A single microtubule can be as long as 0.1 mm
What are microtubules composed of?
Microtubules are constructed of protofilaments, each of which consists of multiple pairs of α- and β-tubulin subunits arranged longitudinally along the microtubule. Each protofilament is made up of a column of alternating α- and β-tubulin subunits . Tubulin subunits bind to neighbouring subunits along the protofilament and also laterally between adjacent protofilaments.
Comment on the tubulin dimer and how it affects the structure of the microtubule
The tubulin dimer (compound formed of one of each of α- and β-tubulin) has a polar structure: The negative end is oriented to the centre of the cell while the positive end extends out to the periphery, to the dendrites and axon.
How do microtubules grow in size? What happens when they stop growing?
Microtubules grow by addition of guanosine triphosphate (GTP)-bound tubulin dimers at their positive end, the end that points to the periphery. Shortly after polymerisation the GTP is hydrolysed to guanosine diphosphate (GDP). When a microtubule stops growing, its positive end is capped by a GDP-bound tubulin monomer.
Comment on the affinity for the GDP-bound tubulin for the polymer and how this impacts, or could impact, the microtubule
Given the low affinity of the GDP-bound tubulin for the polymer, this would lead to catastrophic depolymerisation unless the microtubules were stabilised by interaction with other proteins.
When are microtubules more stable and when are they not? Why is this?
While microtubules undergo rapid cycles of polymerisation and depolymerisation in dividing cells, in mature dendrites and axons they are much more stable. This stability is caused by microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) that promote the oriented polymerisation and assembly of the tubulin polymers.
How do MAPs in axons compare to those in dendrites?
MAPs in axons differ from those in dendrites. For example, MAP2 is present in dendrites but not in axons, whereas tau and MAP3 are present.
What diseases are tau proteins associated with and how?
In Alzheimer disease and some other degenerative disorders tau proteins are modified and abnormally polymerised, forming a characteristic lesion called the neurofibrillary tangle
Comment on Tubulin’s genetic encoding
Tubulins are encoded by a multigene family. At least six genes code the α- and β-subunits. Because of the expression of the different genes or post transcriptional modifications more than 20 isoforms of tubulin are present in the brain.
Describe neurofilaments in regards to their function and frequency
Neurofilaments, 10 nm in diameter, are the bones of the cytoskeleton. They are the most abundant fibrillar component in axons; on average there are 3 to 10 times more neurofilaments than microtubules in an axon.
Describe the composition and structure of neurofilaments
Neurofilaments are built with fibers that twist around each other to produce coils of increasing thickness. The thinnest units are monomers that form coiled-coil heterodimers. These dimers form a tetrameric complex that becomes the protofilament. Two protofilaments become a protofibril, and three protofibrils are helically twisted to form the 10 nm diameter neurofilament. (see docs)
Comment on the stability of neurofilaments
Unlike microtubules, neurofilaments are stable and almost totally polymerized in the cell.
Describe microfilaments in regards to their structure, function and composition.
At 3–7 nm in diameter microfilaments are the thinnest of the three main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton. Like thin filaments of muscle, microfilaments are made up of two strands of polymerized globular actin monomers, each bearing an ATP or adenosine diphosphate (ADP), wound into a double-stranded helix.
What is Actin?
Actin is a major constituent of all cells, perhaps the most abundant animal protein in nature. There are several closely related molecular forms: the α actin of skeletal muscle and at least two other molecular forms, β and γ. Each is encoded by a different gene.
What form of Actin is found in neurons of higher vertebrates?
Neural actin in higher vertebrates is a mixture of the β and γ species, which differ from muscle actin by a few amino acid residues.
To what extent is Actin generalisable across 1) different cell types 2) species?
Most actin molecules are highly conserved (haven’t changed much), not only in different cell types of a species but also in organisms as distantly related as humans and protozoa.
Comment on the length and location of microfilaments
Unlike microtubules and neurofilaments, actin filaments are short. They are concentrated at the cell’s periphery in the cortical cytoplasm just underneath the plasmalemma, where they form a dense network with many actin-binding proteins (eg, spectrin-fodrin, ankyrin, talin, and actinin).
What role does this matrix (the dense network with many actin-binding proteins along periphery of cytoplasm) carry out?
This matrix plays a key role in the dynamic function of the cell’s periphery, such as the motility of growth cones (the growing tips of axons) during development, generation of specialised microdomains at the cell surface, and the formation of pre- and postsynaptic morphological specialisations.
Comment on the stability of microfilaments
Like microtubules, microfilaments undergo cycles of polymerisation and depolymerisation. At any one time approximately half the total actin in a cell can exist as unpolymerised monomers.
What is the state of actin ‘controlled’ by?
The state of actin is controlled by binding proteins, which facilitate assembly and limit polymer length by capping the rapidly growing end of the filament or by severing it. Other binding proteins crosslink or bundle microfilaments.
What does this dynamic state of microtubules and microfilaments allow for?
The dynamic state of microtubules and microfilaments permits a mature neuron to retract old axons and dendrites and extend new ones. This structural plasticity is thought to be a major factor in changes of synaptic connections and efficacy, and therefore cellular mechanisms of long-term memory and learning.
Why are the neurofibrillary tangles problematic in Alzheimer’s patients?
In normal neurons tau is either bound to micro- tubules or free in the cytosol. In the tangles it is not bound to microtubules but is highly insoluble. The accumulations disturb the polymerisation of tubulin and therefore interfere with axonal transport. Consequently, the shape of the neuron is not maintained.
Are tau accumulations exclusive to alzheimer’s patients?
No, Tau accumulations are also found in neurons of patients with progressive supranuclear palsy, a movement disorder, and in patients with frontotemporal dementias, a group of neurodegenerative disorders that affect the frontal and temporal lobes. The familial forms of fronto temporal dementias are caused by mutations in the tau gene.
Give two other examples, apart from tau proteins in Alzheimers patients, of abnormal accumulations of proteins being hallmarks of many neurological disorders (Hint: Thesis!)
Extracellular deposits of polymerized β-amyloid peptides
in Alzheimer disease create an amyloid plaque. This plaque has a dense core of amyloid as well as a surrounding halo of deposits.
A Lewy body in the substantia nigra of a patient with Parkinson disease contains accumulations of abnormal filaments made up of α-synuclein, among other proteins. Like tau, α-synuclein is a normal soluble constituent of the cell. But in Parkinson disease it becomes insoluble.
Do these abnormal protein accumulations affect the physiology of the neurons and glia?
On the one hand, the accumulations may form in response to altered post-translational processing of the proteins and serve to isolate the abnormal proteins, permitting normal cell activities. On the other hand, the accumulations may disrupt cellular activities such as membrane trafficking and axonal and dendritic transport. In addition, the altered proteins themselves, aside from the aggregations, may have deleterious effects. With β-amyloid there is evidence that the peptide itself is toxic.
In addition to serving as cytoskeleton, what other function do microtubules and actin filaments carry out?
In addition to serving as cytoskeleton, microtubules and actin filaments act as tracks along which organelles and proteins are rapidly driven by molecular motors.
What are these molecular motors called and do they carry out any other functions?
The motors used by the actin filaments, the myosins, also mediate other types of cell motility, including extension of the cell’s processes, and the translocation of membranous organelles from the bulk cytoplasm to the region adjacent to the plasma membrane. (Actomyosin is responsible for muscle contraction.)
Do the myosins travel in one direction faster than the other on a given microtubule?
Because the microtubules and actin filaments are polar, each motor drives its organelle cargo in only one direction.
As already mentioned, microtubules are arranged in parallel in the axon with positive ends pointing away from the cell body and negative ends facing the cell body. What does this orientation allow for cell organelles?
This regular orientation permits some organelles to move toward nerve endings and others to move away from nerve endings, the direction being determined by the specific type of molecule motor, thus maintaining the distinctive distribution of axonal organelles
How can the microtubules explain why the cytoplasm of the cell body and the dendrites are similar?
In dendrites, microtubules with opposite polarities are mixed together, explaining why the organelles of the cell body and dendrites are similar.
In neurons where are most of the proteins made? Give examples of substances synthesised here
In neurons most proteins are made in the cell body from mRNAs in the cell body. Important examples are synthesis of neurotransmitter biosynthetic enzymes, synaptic vesicle membrane components, and neuro-secretory peptides.
What part of the neuron are these transport mechanisms most crucial for?
Because axons and terminals often lie at great distances from the cell body, transport mechanisms are crucial for sustaining the function of these remote regions. For example, in a motor neuron that innervates a muscle of the leg in humans, the distance of the nerve terminal from the cell body can exceed 10,000 times the cell-body diameter.
Why can’t passive diffusion be used to deliver vesicles etc down the axon to the synapse?
Passive diffusion is far too slow to deliver vesicles, particles, or even single macromolecules over this great distance. Membrane and secretory products formed in the cell body must be actively transported to the end of the axon.
Today we know that the axoplasmic flow ( axoplasm in the nerve accumulated with time on the proximal side of the ligature) Weiss observed consists of two discrete mechanisms. What mechanisms are these?
Membranous organelles move toward terminals (anterograde direction) and back toward the cell body (retrograde direction) by fast axonal transport, a form of transport that is faster than 400 mm per day in warm-blooded animals.
In contrast, cytosolic and cytoskeletal proteins move only in the anterograde direction by a much slower form of transport, slow axonal transport.
How have these transport mechanisms been utilised by neurobiologists to study the brain?
Because these mechanisms all operate along axons, they have been used by neuroanatomists to trace the axon distribution of neurons
Large membranous organelles are carried to and from the axon terminals by fast transport. Give some examples of what is included under this category
These organelles include synaptic vesicle precursors, large dense-core vesicles, mitochondria, elements of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, as well as protein particles carrying RNAs.
What does it mean to say that the fast transport process is saltatory?
Direct microscopic analysis reveals that fast transport occurs in a stop-and-start (saltatory) fashion along linear tracks of microtubules aligned with the main axis of the axon.
Why is the fast transport process carried out in a saltatory fashion?
The saltatory nature of the movement results from the periodic dissociation of an organelle from the track or from collisions with other particles.
What did early experiments on dorsal root ganglion cells show about the dependencies of anterograde fast transport?
Early experiments on dorsal root ganglion cells showed that anterograde fast transport depends critically on ATP, is not affected by inhibitors of protein synthesis (once the labeled amino acid injected is incorporated), and does not depend on the cell body, because it occurs in axons severed from their cell bodies. In fact, active transport can occur in reconstituted cell-free axoplasm.
Microtubules provide an essentially stationary track on which specific organelles can be moved by molecular motors. Why is it thought that microtubules are involved in fast transport?
The idea that microtubules are involved in fast transport emerged from the finding that certain alkaloids that disrupt microtubules and block mitosis, which depends on microtubules, also interfere with fast transport.
How were molecular motors first visualised?
Molecular motors were first visualized in electron micrographs as cross bridges between microtubules and moving particles
What are anterograde molecular motors [composed of]?
The motor molecules for anterograde transport (toward the positive end of microtubules) are kinesin and a variety of kinesin-related proteins.
What are kinesins?
The kinesins represent a large family of adenosine triphosphatases (ATPase), each of which transports different cargoes. Kinesin is a heterotetramer composed of two heavy chains and two light chains. Each heavy chain has three domains: (1) a globular head (the ATPase domain) that acts as the motor when attached to microtubules, (2) a coiled-coil helical stalk responsible for dimerisation with the other heavy chain, and (3) a fan-like carboxyl-terminus that interacts with the light chains.
What is endocytosis?
Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in substances from outside of the cell by engulfing them in a vesicle. These can include things like nutrients to support the cell or pathogens that immune cells engulf and destroy.
What organelles are primarily moved by retrograde fast transport?
The organelles moved by retrograde fast trans- port are primarily endosomes generated by endocytic activity at nerve endings, mitochondria, and elements of the endoplasmic reticulum.
What occurs to many of the organelles associated with retrograde fast transport?
Many of these components degrade in lysosomes.
Apart from transporting organelles, what other important function does retrograde fast transport have?
Retrograde fast transport also delivers signals that regulate gene expression in the neuron’s nucleus. For example, activated growth factor receptors are taken up into vesicles at nerve endings and carried back along the axon to their site of action in the nucleus. Transport of transcription factors informs the gene transcription apparatus in the nucleus of conditions in the periphery.
When is retrograde transport of these transcription apparatus molecules most important?
Retrograde transport of these molecules is especially important during nerve regeneration and axon regrowth.
How can retrograde transport be disadvantageous?
Certain toxins (tetanus toxin) as well as pathogens (herpes simplex, rabies, and polio viruses) are also transported toward the cell body along the axon.
Compare the speed of antergrade transport to that of retrograde transport
The rate of retrograde fast transport is approximately one-half to two-thirds that of anterograde fast transport.
What is used as a motor in retrograde transport and what filament is it transported on?
As in anterograde transport, particles move along microtubules. The motor molecule for retrograde transport is a microtubule-associated ATPase called MAP-1C.
Describe the structure of the MAP-1C molecule
This molecule is similar to the dyneins in cilia and flagella of other cells and consists of a multimeric protein complex with two globular heads on two stalks connected to a basal structure. The globular heads attach to microtubules and act as motors, moving toward the negative end of the polymer. As with kinesin, the other end of the complex attaches to the organelle being moved.