4# Peace and War Flashcards
- What were the main patterns of suffrage extension (right to vote) in 19th C Europe?
a) The “revolutionary threat” hypothesis
b) The “political competition” hypothesis
Revolutionary threat
- elite: better to give the right to people to vote then the revolution
- relationship between income inequality and suffrage is an upside-down U-curve -> Suffrage was more likely to happen when inequality was moderate.
- the hypothesis is explained only for male workers
Why countries with high income didnt give the right to vote earlier?
- more unequal a society is, the more resistant the elites are to granting voting rights because they would stand to lose more income.
Political competition hypothesis
- right to vote and the process of democratization are influenced by the ** competition ** between different social classes.
- The aristocracy wants weak parliament, the middle class wants strong parliament, the working class desires suffrage and a strong parliament.
- Elites weaken middle-class position in parliament by extending suffrage and worker representatives through social reforms and restrictions on political freedoms.
Pittaluga survival analysis
- survey which examine the right to vote and parliamentary power.
- right to vote was not solely driven by industrialization or income inequality but reflected strategic decisions made by elites in specific contexts
- When the parliament was weak, elites introduced universal vote right to discourage the middle class from seeking more power.
- This made the middle class a minority in parliament and reduced their incentive to push for greater parliamentary powers.
Germany extension
-1870s: Otto von Bismarck introduced a progressive franchise.
- Bismarck created the Reichstag, a symbol of national unity but with a weak parliament.
- 1871: Bismarck implemented universal male suffrage. Goal -> counter bourgeoisie demands for more parliamentary power.
- Bismarck aimed to strengthen the conservative voice, particularly in rural areas
Relationship between suffrage extension and respect for civil
rights and political freedoms and the development of welfare programs.
- right to vote leads to new electorate and increased representation of workers in parliament -> growing pressures for social reform in parliament.
- Elitist reaction involves weakening the electoral base of worker representatives.
- Heavy restrictions are imposed on political rights and freedoms.
- State-led social reform and welfare schemes
example of the relationship
- Napoleon III: large public works (first employment schemes)
- Bismarck: right to retirement and sickness insurance (first real welfare state)
- Pittaluga study: how elites can use the multiple dimensions of democracy (right to vote..) to remain in power
- Early extension of suffrage is oftentimes evidence of parliamentary weaknesses
- When suffrage was extended, often attempts to restrain political liberties or weaken the electoral base of socialist parties (by state-led welfare reform)
What does it explain?
- Why suffrage extension and strengthening of parliamentary autonomy rarely occurred at the same time
- Why suffrage extension sometimes did not translate into genuine social reform
The Century of peace (La Belle Epoque)
- Named in retrospect; contrasting the horrors of WWI; emphasizing joy of living
- Period characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, scientific, technological, industrial innovations, and social changes, flourishing of the arts
- Warfare had been a way of life in Europe for centuries
->Napoleonic warfare and doctrines of “total war” (Von Clausewitz)
In contrast, period 1815-1914:
- Only a small number of wars; limited impact & duration; involving only a handful of European wars
- Mainly bilateral conflicts (e.g., wars of German and Italian unification)
- Mainly outside the European continent/colonies
- Estimate: 1815-1914 number of war deaths was 7 times less than in 18th C.
Congress of Vienna
- 1815 Peace treaty
- France + the great victors (Prussia, Russia, Austria and Britain)
- Delegations from Sweden, Spain and Portugal
What congress of View aimed?
- Restore international peace -> Create a new equilibrium among great European powers to prevent war
- Restore domestic stability -> Instrumentalisation of monarchic dynasties: divine right to rule + family ties across Europe (mutual support)
- Describe the factors conducive to the “Concert of Europe” politics.
- Count the factors conducive to the “Concert of Europe” politics.
- Recognition of international boundaries and state sovereignty
- Regulated war as instrument for peace
- Creation of equally powerful countries
- Compliance ensured by dual hegemony
Describe each factor
1. Recognition of international boundaries and state sovereignty :
- Recognition of international boundaries (1815); multilateral agreements
- Earlier: @King’s death, all his international treaties had to be renewed; now a system of international rights is established
2. Regulated war as instrument for peace:
- Stakes of competition changed: Spheres of influence territorial enlargement)
- Mutual protection clause (against revolutions) + limitations on military interventions (1820)
4. Compliance ensured by dual hegemony:
1. Great Britain (“Pax Brittanica”): economic, military and colonial dominance; strong naval fleet
2. Russia: enormous land mass in the North and large population size (standing army); balancing British dominance via Holy Alliance
Vienna system: what made it work?
- Fear of domestic revolutions — a willingness to work together
- End of British-French rivalry —- British hegemony
- Some states’ energy went to nation-building ( expansionism)
- Industrialisation —- new doctrines of imperialism and colonialism
But why did the “European Concert” fail in the end?
- Vienna system was essentially built on a negative conception of international relations
- 40 years of peace; relative territorial stability
- European powers divided over Troppau “mutual support” protocol
- Seeds of nationalism: Vienna ignored nationalist sentiments and reduced Poland, Italy and German states to instruments for retaining status quo
Details - causes
Vienna system was essentially built on a negative conception of internat
Vienna system was essentially built on a negative conception of international relations:
* A defensive system; aimed at preventing dominance from one state over others
- Although war became an instrument for peace, expansionist wars were not considered inevitable
- Throughout the 19th C., a constant military race; after 1900s, the speed of militarisation doubled (industrialisation)
- 1870s ”Great Depression”: weakened economies and industries; heightened colonial rivalries
- Conflict management rather than genuine conflict resolution
Causes- detail
* European powers divided over Troppau “mutual support” protocol
- Holy Alliance in favour; to protect monarchistic regimes
- France and Britain feared it would serve as an excuse for meddling in the internal affairs of independent states
Causes- detail
* European powers divided over Troppau “mutual support” protocol
- Holy Alliance in favour; to protect monarchistic regimes
- France and Britain feared it would serve as an excuse for meddling in the internal affairs of independent states
Causes - detail
* Seeds of nationalism
Vienna ignored nationalist sentiments and reduced Poland, Italy and German states to instruments for retaining status quo:
* Break up of Poland (partly annexed by Russia)
* Austria: tolerance towards nascent cultural and linguistic movements (Czechs and Magyars/Hungarians): seeds of later nationalist movements
* Italy: foreign rule (Austria) & weak German confederation
* No international body to which people could turn to revise boundaries
Causes - detail
* Seeds of nationalism
Vienna ignored nationalist sentiments and reduced Poland, Italy and German states to instruments for retaining status quo:
* Break up of Poland (partly annexed by Russia)
* Austria: tolerance towards nascent cultural and linguistic movements (Czechs and Magyars/Hungarians): seeds of later nationalist movements
* Italy: foreign rule (Austria) & weak German confederation
* No international body to which people could turn to revise boundaries
The break-down of European concert
1. Weakening of the Ottoman empire
- Ottoman empire - sick man of europe because weakening of its political control and a decline in its economy.
- millet system: , allowing each religious community to rule itself but remaining subordinate to Muslims
- , allowing each religious community to rule itself but remaining subordinate to Muslims
The break-down of European concert
Greek war of independence (1821-1830)
- Sultan depended for regional control on Ali Pasha
- Death of Ali Pasha (1822): Greek warlords filled the political vacuum: guerilla warfare
- Sultan called in aid from Mehmet Ali, Pasha of Egypt
The break-down of European concert
* The conflict became an international one
- Russia = protector of Orthodox people in the Balkans, other powers feared Russian expansionist aspirations
- Pro-Greek public opinion (Greece = birthplace of democracy)
- Diplomacy broke off because of military presence Mehmet Ali
- Battle of Navarino (1827): destruction of Turkish-Egyptian fleet
The break-down of European concert
* Crimean War and alliance of Britain, France and Turkey against Russia
- Crimean War (1853-56): largest European war since Napoleonic wars; and until WWI
- An alliance of Britain, France and Turkey against Russia
- 1853: Turkish-Russian war over Romania
-1854: involvement France (and, then, Britain)
-> French-Russian struggle over influence:- Russia: control over Palestinian territories (Holy Church) and Constantinople (birthplace Orthodox Christian Church)
- France: Napoleon III: renewed relations with pope; challenged Russian protector rights of Christians in Ottoman Empire; pushed Sultan to recognise France as “sovereign authority” over the Christian population
Crimean War (1853-56)
