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A-level Physics 2021-22 > 4. Mechanics & Materials > Flashcards

4. Mechanics & Materials Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a vector?

A

A physical quantity that has a direction as well as a magnitude

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2
Q

Examples of vectors?

A
  • field strength
  • force
  • momentum
  • weight
  • velocity
  • acceleration
  • displacement
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3
Q

What is a scalar?

A

A physical quantity that is not directional

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4
Q

Examples of scalars?

A
  • density
  • charge
  • resistance
  • work done
  • energy
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5
Q

How can a vector be represented?

A

By an arrow

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6
Q

What does the length of an arrow representing a vector determine?

A

The magnitude of the vector quantity

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7
Q

How to resolve vectors into their horizontal and vertical components?

A
  • use angle of vector (Θ)
  • for sinΘ
  • then for cosΘ
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8
Q

If two forces act on an object, when is equilibrium achieved?

A

When the two forces are equal and opposite

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9
Q

If three forces act on an object, when is equilibrium achieved?

A

When the resultant of any two of the forces is equal and opposite to the third force

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10
Q

What are the ways to work out forces on an object when it is in equilibrium?

A
  • vector triangle

* resolve the components

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11
Q

What is the centre of gravity of an object?

A

The point through which the entire weight of the object may be considered to act

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12
Q

Word equation to calculate the moment of a force?

A

Force x Perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the pivot

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13
Q

What is the principle of moments?

A

For any object that is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that same point

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14
Q

What is a couple?

A

A pair of equal and opposite forces, not acting in the same straight line

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15
Q

What is the turning effect that couples create called?

A

A torque

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16
Q

How to calculate the torque of a couple?

A

torque = one of the forces x perpendicular distance between them

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17
Q

What are the two conditions for equilibrium?

A
  1. there is no net (resultant force)

2. there is no turning effect (moment) about any point

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18
Q

What is the centre of mass of a body?

A

The point on an object where the mass may thought to be concentrated

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19
Q

How to find COM of symmetrical objects?

A

Along the line of symmetry, or where multiple lines of symmetry intersect

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20
Q

How to find COM of non-symmetrical objects?

A

If an object swings freely, when it stops the COM is on a vertical line passing through the pivot

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21
Q

When an object is in equilibrium, what is true of the vertical forces?

A

They are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

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22
Q

When an object is in equilibrium, what is true of the horizontal forces?

A

They are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction

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23
Q

When an object in equilibrium is supported at one point, what is the support force equal to?

A

It is equal and opposite to the total downward force acting on the object

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24
Q

How to calculate average speed?

A

distance / time

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25
Q

How to calculate acceleration?

A

change in velocity / time

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26
Q

How to calculate average velocity?

A

displacement / time

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27
Q

What does velocity measure?

A

The rate of change of displacement

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28
Q

What does acceleration measure?

A

The rate of change of velocity

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29
Q

What is the gradient in a distance-time graph?

A

Speed

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30
Q

What is the gradient in a displacement-time graph?

A

Velocity

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31
Q

What is the gradient in a velocity-time graph?

A

Acceleration

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32
Q

What is the gradient in an acceleration-time graph?

A

Rate of change of acceleration

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33
Q

What is the area underneath a velocity-time graph?

A

Displacement

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34
Q

What is the area underneath an acceleration-time graph?

A

Velocity

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35
Q

What do negative values of displacement or velocity on a graph indicate?

A

Motion in the opposite direction

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36
Q

On a velocity-time graph, what does a straight upwards line represent?

A

Constant acceleration

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37
Q

On a velocity-time graph, what does a straight horizontal line represent?

A

Constant velocity

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38
Q

On a velocity-time graph, what does a straight downwards line represent?

A

Constant deceleration

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39
Q

On an acceleration-time graph, what does a horizontal line represent?

A

An object travelling at constant acceleration - or no acceleration so constant velocity

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40
Q

On an acceleration-time graph, what does a straight line downards represent?

A

Acceleration is speeding up, but at a slowing rate

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41
Q

On an acceleration-time graph, what does a straight downwards line, below the zero line, represent?

A

Negative acceleration - the deceleration is slowing down, and area below zero line so negative change in velocity

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42
Q

What is the equation for an object’s speed, moving at constant speed on a circle?

A

v = 2πr / T

where T = time to move round once

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43
Q

What are suvat equations?

A

Equations describing motion

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44
Q

When can suvat equations be used?

A

When acceleration is constant

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45
Q

What do the letters in suvat stand for?

A
  • s - displacement
  • u - initial velocity
  • v - final velocity
  • a - acceleration
  • t - time
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46
Q

How is the equation a=(v-u)/t derived using a graph?

A
  • velocity-time graph
  • gradient = acceleration
  • increase in y = v-u
  • over increase in x = t
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47
Q

How is the equation s=(u+v)t÷2 derived using a graph?

A
  • velocity-time graph
  • area underneath = displacement
  • area of trapezium = 1/2(a+b)h
  • s = 1/2(u+v)t = (u+v)t÷2
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48
Q

What is the suvat equation that doesn’t include s?

A

v=u+at

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49
Q

What is the suvat equation that doesn’t include u?

A

s=vt-1/2at²

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50
Q

What is the suvat equation that doesn’t include v?

A

s=ut+1/2at²

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51
Q

What is the suvat equation that doesn’t include a?

A

s=[(u+v)/2]t

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52
Q

What is the suvat equation that doesn’t include t?

A

v²=u²+2as

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53
Q

What experiment can be used to measure g?

A
  • drop an object from a height - measure using meter rule
  • use light gates to measure time taken for object to fall
  • s=1/2at² ∴ s=1/2gt²
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54
Q

What is a projectile?

A

An object that is projected or thrown through the air at an angle

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55
Q

What can be done with a projectile’s initial velocity?

A

Can be separated into components

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56
Q

When calculating projectiles, what force is ignored?

A

Air resistance

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57
Q

Ignoring air resistance, what is the only force acting on a projectile?

A

Gravity

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58
Q

What does gravity acting objects mean for the components of projectiles?

A
  • gives a downward acceleration - so affects vertical component of velocity
  • horizontal component of velocity remains constant
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59
Q

Which component of acceleration of a projectile is affected by gravity?

A

The vertical component

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60
Q

Which value is the same for both components when calculating projectiles?

A

Time

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61
Q

What is a resultant force?

A

A single force that has the same effect as all the forces combined

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62
Q

What is Newton’s 1st law?

A

An object will remain at rest or continue to move with a constant velocity as long as the forces acting on it are balanced

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63
Q

When is an object’s momentum not constant?

A

When there is a resultant unbalanced force acting on it

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64
Q

What is inertia?

A

The resistance to change velocity

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65
Q

What does the inertia of an object depend on?

A

Its mass

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66
Q

How does a bigger mass affect inertia?

A

Bigger mass = bigger force to overcome its inertia and change its motion

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67
Q

When travelling in a car and decelerating, what keeps you moving?

A

Your inertia - until something stops you, hopefully your seatbelt

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68
Q

Word equation for momentum?

A

Mass x velocity

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69
Q

Symbol equation for momentum?

A

ρ = mv

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70
Q

What is the unit for momentum?

A

kgms⁻¹ or Ns

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71
Q

What do objects have when stationary, in terms of momentum and inertia?

A

They have no momentum, but still have inertia

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72
Q

Is inertia a scalar or a vector?

A

Scalar

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73
Q

Is momentum a scalar or a vector?

A

Vector

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74
Q

What is Newton’s 2nd law?

A

The rate of change of momentum of an object ∝ to resultant force acting on it. Change in momentum takes place in the direction of the force

75
Q

If mass is constant, how can change in momentum be calculated?

A

Δρ = mv - mu

76
Q

What can F ∝ Δρ/Δt be simplfied to? And under what condition?

A

F = m [(v-u)/Δt]

if the mass of the object doesn’t change

77
Q

What is tension equal to (in terms of mass and force)?

A

T = ma + mg

78
Q

What is force equal to (in terms of tension and weight)?

A

F = T - mg

79
Q

What happens in terms of forces when two objects interact?

A

They exert equal and opposite forces on eachother

80
Q

What is true about pairs of forces acting on different objects?

A

They are always the same type of force

81
Q

What is Newton’s 3rd law?

A

If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts an equal and opposite force of A

82
Q

Do forces act in isolation?

A

No - they act in pairs

83
Q

Why do pairs of forces not cancel each other out?

A

They act on different objects

84
Q

How can Newton’s laws show conservation of momentum?

A
  • 3rd says F₁=-F₂
  • 2nd says F=ma so ΔPB/ΔTB = ΔPA/ΔTA
  • ΔTB=ΔTA ∴ ΔPB=-ΔPA
  • ∴ ΔPB+ΔPA = 0
85
Q

What is the principle of conservation of momentum?

A

When bodies in a system interact, the total momentum remains constant - provided no external force acts on the system

86
Q

What is the principle of conservation of momentum - in simple terms?

A

Total momentum before = total momentum after

provided no external forces act

87
Q

What happens to momentum when objects collide?

A

Momentum is conserved

88
Q

What is assumed when two objects collide and momentum is conserved?

A

There are no external forces acting

89
Q

During a collision, will energy and momentum be conserved if there are no external forces acting?

A
  • momentum will be conserved

* energy might be conserved

90
Q

How is the kinetic energy before and after an elastic collision?

A

Ek before = Ek after

91
Q

What are the types of collision?

A
  • elastic

* inelastic

92
Q

Are collisions between snooker balls elastic or inelastic?

A

Very nearly elastic

93
Q

What is the difference between elastic and inelastic collisions?

A
  • elastic - Ek before = Ek after

* inelastic - Ek before > Ek after

94
Q

Are collisions between molecules in a gas elastic or inelastic?

A

Elastic

95
Q

What would it mean if collisions between molecules in a gas were inelastic instead of elastic?

A

Repeated collisions would slow gas molecules down, and would eventually settle at the bottom of a container

96
Q

Are most collisions elastic or inelastic?

A

Inelastic

97
Q

What happens to the kinetic energy that is ‘lost’ during an inelastic collision?

A

It is transferred to other forms

98
Q

What is the ‘lost’ energy usually converted to during inelastic collisions?

A

Internal (heat) energy

99
Q

What type of collision is undergone in crash barriers and crumple zones of cars?

A

Inelastic

100
Q

Why are crash barriers and crumple zones designed to collide inelastically?

A

To absorb the kinetic energy in a crash

101
Q

Which principle can be applied to explosions?

A

The principle of conservation of momentum

102
Q

What can the principle of conservation of momentum be used for?

A
  • collisions

* explosions

103
Q

In exam questions, what is the movement of all objects involved in explosions?

A

Initially, they are all stationary

104
Q

What is the initial momentum of explosions when the objects are both stationary?

A

Total initial momentum is zero

105
Q

What is impulse equal to?

A

The change in momentum

106
Q

What is the equation to show impulse?

A

Δp = FΔt

107
Q

What is the advantage of ‘following through’ in sports?

A
  • keeps force acting on ball for longer

* refer to F = Δp/Δt

108
Q

What is the advantage of drawing your hands back when catching a ball?

A
  • reduces sting
  • as Δp happens over a longer time
  • reducing force on hands
109
Q

What happens to Δp when there is a greater force on an object, acting for longer?

A

Greater change in the object’s momentum

110
Q

What is the area underneath a force-time graph?

A

Impulse

111
Q

What is the area underneath a force-time graph NOT referred to as?

A

Change in momentum

112
Q

What is the area underneath a force-time graph?

A

Impulse (kgms⁻¹)

113
Q

What is the equation for work done that includes displacement?

A

W = Fx

114
Q

What does the x stand for in the equation W=Fx?

A

Displacement

115
Q

For equation W=Fx, what must be done if force and displacement are not in the same direction?

A

The force needs to be resolved to find the component acting in the direction of the displacement

116
Q

What can work done also be referred to as?

A

Energy transferred

117
Q

What is the definition of 1J

A

The work done when a force of 1N moves through a distance of 1m (in the direction of the positive force)

118
Q

What is power?

A

The rate at which work is done

119
Q

What is the symbol equation for power that involves work done?

A

P = ΔW / Δt

120
Q

What is 1W in derived units?

A

1 Js-1

121
Q

What equation can be used to calculate power that involves velocity?

A

P = Fv

122
Q

What equation for power might not be on the data sheet?

A

P = Fv

123
Q

What is true for the velocity in P=Fv?

A

It is constant

124
Q

What are the types of energy?

A
  • heat
  • light
  • chemical
  • sound
  • electrical
  • nuclear
  • elastic potential
  • kinetic
  • gravitational potential
125
Q

How is the equation for gravitational potential energy derived?

A
  • W = Fx
  • = Weight x Δh
  • Work done = Ep gained
  • so Ep = weight x change in height
  • Ep = mgh
126
Q

How is the equation for elastic potential energy derived?

A
  • F = kx
  • when a spring is stretched, work is done
  • (area under f-x graph) = 1/2kx
  • W = Fx
  • W = 1/2 kx x x
  • W = 1/2ke²
127
Q

How is the equation for kinetic energy derived?

A
  • an object gains Ek if a force does work on it
  • W = Fx
  • & F=ma → so W=mas
  • suvat to find F → s=[(u+v)/2]/t & a=(v-u)/t
  • subs a and s into W=mas to get W=1/2m(v²-u²)
  • so Ek = 1/2mv²-1/2mu²
128
Q

What is the principle of conservation of energy?

A

Energy can be transferred from one form to another, but it cannot be created or destroyed

129
Q

What is true of the total energy when using the law of conservation of energy?

A

The total amount of energy always stays the same

130
Q

Equation for efficiency?

A

Efficiency = useful energy output / total energy output

131
Q

What is the unit for efficiency?

A

No unit

132
Q

What does it mean when energy is ‘wasted’?

A

It is transferred to internal (heat) energy

133
Q

What is density defined as?

A

A substance’s mass per unit volume

134
Q

Equation for density?

A

ρ = m/v

135
Q

Method for finding density of a regular solid?

A
  • ruler - measure width, length and height
  • top-pan balance - measure mass
  • use ρ = m/v
136
Q

Method for finding density of an irregular solid?

A
  • top-pan balance - measure mass
  • use a eureka can to measure water displaced by object
  • volume of water = volume of object
  • use ρ = m/v
137
Q

What type of force is acting when a spring is squashed?

A

Compressive

138
Q

What type of force is acting when a spring is lengthened?

A

Tensile

139
Q

What is Hooke’s law?

A

The force needed to stretch a string is proportional to the extension of the spring from its natural length, provided the elastic limit isn’t exceeded

140
Q

What is the equation for Hooke’s law?

A

F = kΔL

141
Q

What does it mean for the stiffness of the spring when spring constant is larger?

A

It is a stiffer spring

142
Q

What happens to a spring when it is stretched beyond its elastic limit?

A

It doesn’t regain its initial length when the force applied is removed

143
Q

How can the spring constant of springs ‘in parallel’ be calculated?

A

Multiply the spring constants together of the original springs

144
Q

How can the spring constant of two springs ‘in series’ be calculated?

A

1/kₜₒₜₐₗ = 1/kₑₐ𝒸ₕ x number of springs

145
Q

What is the area underneath a force-extension graph equal to?

A

Strain energy (as work done = force x distance)

146
Q

Equation for strain energy?

A

Eₑ = 1/2kΔL²

147
Q

When does the equation Eₑ = 1/2kΔL² apply?

A

Only if the spring obeys Hooke’s law

148
Q

In materials, what does the stiffness depend on?

A

Material, length and cross-sectional area

149
Q

What is the equation for Young Modulus?

A

k = EA / l

150
Q

What does the ‘E’ mean in k = EA / l?

A

Young Modulus

151
Q

What is the definition of stress on a material?

A

The force acting per unit cross sectional area

152
Q

Equation for stress?

A

Force / cross sectional area (σ = F/A)

153
Q

What is stress measured in?

A

pascals (Pa)

154
Q

What is the breaking stress of a material?

A

The maximum stress it can withstand without fracture

155
Q

What can breaking stress also be referred to as?

A

Ultimate tensile stress

156
Q

What happens when materials get a thinner section when they are stretched?

A

They break here as stress is increased here

157
Q

What is strain defined as?

A

The extension produced per unit length

158
Q

Equation for strain?

A

Extension / length (ε = x / l)

159
Q

What is strain measured in?

A

Has no units

160
Q

Equation for Young Modulus, E?

A

Tensile stress, σ / Tensile strain, ε

161
Q

How can the two separate equations for stress and strain be simplified?

A
  • σ=F/A divided by ε=x/l
  • F/A x L/ΔL = FL/AΔL
  • F/ΔL is spring constant
  • so E = kL/A
162
Q

On a stress-strain graph showing a stiff and a flexible material, which material has the line with the steepest gradient?

A

The stiff material

163
Q

What are materials that permanently deform described as?

A

Plastic

164
Q

What are materials that return to their original shape after the stretching force is removed called?

A

Elastic

165
Q

What can plastic materials also be described as?

A
  • ductile - can be drawn into wires

* malleable - they can be hammered into sheets

166
Q

Describe the force-extension graph of a metal wire.

A
  • loading - the line starts straight, and curves as it surpasses the limit of elasticity
  • unloading - the line doesn’t come back along the same line as when loading
  • difference between loading and unloading lines = permanent extension of wire
167
Q

Describe the force-extension graph of a rubber band.

A
  • loading - the line is curved
  • unloading - the line is curved, but doesn’t follow the same curve as the loading line
  • unloading line finishes at the origin - rubber returns to its original shape
168
Q

What is the opposite of a tough material?

A

A brittle material

169
Q

What happens when you try to deform a malleable material e.g. lead?

A

It deforms plastically - gives way gradually, absorbing a lot of energy before it snaps

170
Q

Do brittle materials deform plastically?

A

No

171
Q

Do brittle materials absorb much energy before they break?

A

No, unlike plastic materials

172
Q

What are force-extension graphs used for, vs stress-strain graphs?

A
  • force-extension → usually for objects e.g. particular spring
  • stress-strain → usually for materials (of any size)
173
Q

What does the gradient represent on force-extension and stress-strain graphs?

A
  • force-extension → spring constant (Nm⁻¹)

* stress-strain → Young Modulus, E (Nm⁻² or Pa)

174
Q

What is the Young Modulus measured in?

A

Nm⁻² or Pa

175
Q

What does the area represent on force-extension and stress-strain graphs?

A
  • force-extension → work done (1/2kΔL²) in J

* stress-strain → work done per unit length (W/V) in Jm⁻³

176
Q

What is work done per unit length measured in?

A

Jm⁻³

177
Q

On a force-extension graph, what does it mean if the area of the unloading graph is smaller than that of the loading graph?

A

Some energy has been transferred

178
Q

What is the reason for energy transference on a force-extension graph?

A

Some energy stored in the object (e.g. rubber band) becomes the internal energy of the molecules when the rubber band unstretches

179
Q

On a force-extension graph, what does the area between the loading and unloading curve represent?

A

Difference between energy stored in the object when it is stretched and the useful energy recovered from it when it is unstretched

180
Q

Brief explanation of experiment to find the Young Modulus of a wire?

A
  • stress → wire with mass attached - measure mass using top-pan balance and use W=mg. measure diameter of wire using micrometer, then calculate area
  • then stress = F/A
  • strain → measure extension by measuring distance marker moves from original position, and length of wire. calculate strain
  • vary mass for range of values - plot stress-strain graph
181
Q

How to improve accuracy in the experiment to calculate the Young Modulus of a wire?

A
  • use long thin wire and heavier weights → greater Δl so smaller % uncertainty
  • measure diameter accurately using micrometer
  • measure wire by holding ruler as close to the wire as possible
182
Q

In an experiment to calculate the Young Modulus of a wire, how can kinks in the wire be avoided?

A

Weights are added at the beginning, before length measured

183
Q

In an experiment to calculate the Young Modulus of a wire, how can we make sure there is no thermal expansion?

A

By comparing the test wire to a control wire

184
Q

What is the elastic limit?

A

The point beyond which a wire will not return to its original length after weight has been added and then remove

A-level Physics 2021-22 (11 decks)

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