Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

MCAT Behavioral Sciences > 4 - Cognition, Consciousness, and Language > Flashcards

4 - Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
MCAT flashcards
1
Q

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development (4)

A
  1. Sensorimotor
  2. Preoperational
  3. Concrete Operational
  4. Formal Operational
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

0-2 years; child learns to manipulate environment to meet physical needs; characterized by circular reactions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Preoperational Stage

A

2-7 years; characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Concrete Operational Stage

A

7-11 years; characterized by understanding of conservation, consideration of other’s perspectives, and logical thought when working with concrete objects or information that is directly available

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Formal Operational Stage

A

11 years; characterized by problem-solving and thinking logically about abstract ideas

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Primary Circular Reactions

A

repetition of body movement that occurred by chance; repetition occurs because it is soothing (e.g. sucking thumb); sensorimotor stage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Secondary Circular Reactions

A

repetition of movement that is focused on something outside of the body; repetition occurs because child usually gets a response from the environment (e.g. child throws toy from high chair and mom picks it up); sensorimotor stage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Object Permanence

A

the understanding that objects continue to exist, even when out of view; a key milestone that ends sensorimotor stage (e.g. “peek-a-boo” is entertaining for children in snsorimotor stage because they lack object permanence)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Object Permanence

A

the understanding that objects continue to exist, even when out of view; a key milestone that ends sensorimotor stage (e.g. “peek-a-boo” is entertaining for children in snsorimotor stage because they lack object permanence)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Egocentrism

A

the inability to image what a person may think or feel

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Centration

A

the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon or the inability to understand the concept of conservation (e.g. child thinks two small slices of pizza is more than one much larger slice)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Time-Based Prospective Memory

A

the ability to remember to perform a task at a specific time in the future; declines with age

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Fluid Intelligence

A

problem-solving skills; peaks in early adulthood but declines with age

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Crystallized Intelligence

A

the use of learned skills and knowledge; peaks in middle adulthood but declines with age

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Delirium

A

rapid fluctuation in cognitive fxn that is reversible and caused by nonphysiological causes such as electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug rxn, alcohol withdrawal, and pain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Mental Set

A

the tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

the inability to consider how to use an object in a non-traditional manner

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A

top-down reasoning; starts from set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A

bottom-up reasoning; seeks to create theory via generalizations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Heuristics

A

simplified principles used to make decisions; provide a more efficient - although sometimes inaccurate - method for problem solving

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Availability Heuristics

A

decision based on likelihood (and how easily a similar instance can be imagined; e.g. used to decide whether there’s more letters that begin with “K” than have “K” as their 3rd letter

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

categorization of items based on where they fit as prototypical, stereotypical, or representative images of a category; e.g. coin is flipped 10x and lands heads 10x, based on this info one might think it will either land heads again due to established pattern or tails because probability should even out

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Base Rate Fallacy

A

using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

A
  • linguistic
  • logical-mathematical
  • musical
  • visual-spatial
  • bodily-kinesthetic
  • interpersonal
  • intrapersonal

**Gardner argues that Western culture values the first two abilities over the others

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Spearman’s “g-factor”

A

general intelligence factor; theory behind existence of “g-factor” is based on observation that performance on different cognitive tasks is in many cases positively correlated, indicating an underlying factor/variable is playing a role; underlying factor/variable is often measured with IQ test

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

IQ Formula

A

[(mental age)/(chronological age)] x 100 = IQ

  • *Mean = 100
  • *SD = 15
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Disconfirmation Principle

A

discarding a solution to a problem after this potential solution fails during testing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

the tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Belief Perseverance

A

the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Intuition

A

the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available perceptions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Recognition-Primed Decision Model

A

describes how people make quick, effective decisions by via experience and recognition of similar experiences; explains intuition

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Accepted States of Consciousness (4)

A

Consciousness: awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within that world

(1) Alertness
(2) Sleep
(3) Dreaming
(4) Altered states of consciousness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Alertness is maintained by neurological circuits between which brain two structures?

A

prefrontal cortex + reticular formation

**a brain injury that results in the disruption of these connections results in a comatose state

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

The sleep stages form a complete cycle that lasts about ___ minutes

A

90

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Which brain waves characterize brain wave activity when we are awake?

A
  • alpha

- beta

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Beta waves

A

occur when person is awake, alert, or attending to mental task that requires concentration; high frequency

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Alpha waves

A

occur when we are awake but relaxing; slower than beta waves and more synchronous

38
Q

Stage 1 Sleep

A

dozing off; theta waves

39
Q

Stage 2 Sleep

A

deeper sleep; theta waves, sleep spindles, K complexes

40
Q

Stage 3 + 4 Sleep

A

SWS marked by difficulty in rousing a person from sleep; slower EEG activity; delta waves (low frequency)

41
Q

Slow Wave Sleep is associated with (3)

A

associated with cognitive recovery, DECLARATIVE memorly consilidation, and increases growth hormone release

42
Q

Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (NREM)

A

stages 1-4

43
Q

REM Sleep

A

aka paradoxical sleep; arousal levels reach that of wakefulness (e.g. HR, breathing, and EEG mimic wakefulness) but muscles are paralyzed; characterized by dreaming and PROCEDURAL memory consolidation

44
Q

Mneumonic for the sequential order of brain waves during sleep

A

“BAT-D”

Note: remember that a BAT sleeps during the Day

45
Q

How does the makeup of a sleep cycle change as the night progresses?

A
  • earlier in the night SWS predominates

- later in the night REM predominates

46
Q

How do sleep cycles change over one’s lifespan?

A
  • children have 50 min sleep cycles vs adults 90 min

- children spend more time in SWS

47
Q

What hormone contributes to sleepiness?

A

Melatonin

decrease in light to retina –> hypothalamus –> pineal gland –> release of melatonin

48
Q

What hormone contributes to wakefulness?

A

Cortisol

increase in light to retina –> release of CRF from hypothalamus (corticotropin releasing factor) –> release of ACTH from anterior pituitary –> cortisol release from adrenal cortex

49
Q

In what sleep stage does dreaming occur?

A
  • 75% of dreaming in REM

- rest of dreaming occurs in stage 2 upwards

50
Q

Activation Synthesis Theory

A

states that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry

51
Q

Dyssomnias

A

disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep or avoid sleep (e.g. narcolepsy, insomnias, and sleep apnea)

52
Q

Parasomnias

A

abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep (e.g. night terrors and sleep walking)

53
Q

In what stage do most sleep disorders occur?

A

NREM

54
Q

Cataplexy

A

loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours

55
Q

Hypnagogic Hallucinations

A

hallucinations when trying to go to sleep

56
Q

Hypnopompic Hallucinations

A

hallucinations when trying to wake up

57
Q

Obstructive Sleep Apnea

A

physical blockage in pharynx or trachea prevents airflow

58
Q

Central Sleep Apnea

A

brain fails to send signals to diaphragm to breathe

59
Q

REM Rebound

A

an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep that occurs following sleep deprivation

60
Q

EEG waves during meditation

A

resembles Stage 1 sleep with theta and slow alpha waves

61
Q

Alcohol’s chemical effects on brain

A
  • increase in GABA activity (a Cl- channel that causes hyperpolarization of membrane); brain inhbition
  • increase in dopamine; mild euphoria
62
Q

Alcohol Myopia

A

a short-sighted view of the world that occurs when logical reasoning is affected by intoxication and one is unable to recognize the consequences of their actions

63
Q

Benzodiazepines chemical effects on brain

A
  • increase in GABA activity

e. g. lorazepam, alprazolam, diazepam, clonazepam

64
Q

Stimulants chemical effects on brain

A

increase frequency of action potentials; each drug does so by different mechanism

65
Q

Amphetamines Mechanism of Action

A

increase release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse; decrease their reuptake

66
Q

Opiates vs. Opioids

A
  • opiates = naturally occuring form (e.g. morphine, codeine)

- opioids = semi-synthetic derivatives (e.g. heroine, oxycodone, hydrocodone)

67
Q

THC chemical effects on brain

A
  • acts at cannabinoid, glycine, and opioid receptors
  • THC inhibits GABA activity
  • THC indirectly increases dopamine activity
68
Q

Mesolimbic Reward Pathway

A
  • 1 of 4 dopaminergic pathways in brain; activation accounts for positive reinforcement of substance abuse
  • includes nucleus accumbens (NAc), ventral tegmental area (VTA) and medial forebrain bundle (MFB) which connects the two
69
Q

Phonology

A

the actual sound of language

70
Q

Phonemes

A

speech sounds; ~40 in English, more in other languages

71
Q

Morphology

A

the structure of words

72
Q

Morphemes

A

building blocks of words; (e.g. the word redesigned can be broken down into re- , -design- , and -ed)

73
Q

Semantics

A

the association of meaning with a word

74
Q

Syntax

A

how words are put together to form a sentence

75
Q

Pragmatics

A

the dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge; in other words, the manner in which we speak may differ based on audience and our relationship to them (e.g. when asking to share a seat on a bus with stranger may ask more formally than to a friend who we’d just tell to move over)

76
Q

Prosody

A

the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

77
Q

Timeline of Language Acquisition in Children

A

9-12 months = babbling

12-18 months = ~ 1 word per month

18-20 months = “explosion” of language and combining words

2-3 years = longer sentences (3 words or more)

5 years = language rules largely mastered

78
Q

Errors of Growth

A

child applies a grammatical rule (often morpheme) in a situation in which it does not apply; e.g. runned instead of ran

79
Q

Nativist (Biological) Theory

A

advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language; innate ability is called “Language Acquisition Device (LAD)”

80
Q

Language Acquisition Device

A

a theoretical brain pathway that allows infants to process and absorb language rules

81
Q

Critical Period for Language Acquisition

A

2 years to puberty; believed by Nativists that if no language exposure occurs during this time, any later training is largely ineffective

82
Q

Learning (Behaviorist) Theory

A

language acquisition by operant conditioning (parental reinforcement)

83
Q

Social Interactionist Theory

A

language acquisition is driven by child’s desire to communicate and behave in social manner; focus is on interplay between biological and social processes

84
Q

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

A

aka Whorfian Hypothesis; suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language; in other words, language affects the way we think instead of the other way around

85
Q

Broca’s Area

A

responsible for the motor function of speech via connections to the motor cortex; located in the inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe in dominant hemisphere (usually left)

86
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

responsible for language comprehension; located in superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe in dominant hemisphere (usually left)

87
Q

Arcuate Fasciculus

A

a bundle of axons that connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s

88
Q

Expressive Aphasia

A

damage to Broca’s; results in deficit of language production

89
Q

Receptive Aphasia

A

damage to Wernicke’s; results in deficit of language comprehension which leads patients to speak nonsensical word combinations

90
Q

Conduction Aphasia

A

damage to arcuate fasciculus; speech production and comprehension are intact since broca’s and wernicke’s are unaffected, but PT is unable to repeat something that is said since connection between two regions is lost

MCAT Behavioral Sciences (2 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions