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363 Final Flashcards

1
Q

Descriptive grammar is:

A

the way grammar is implied (breaking rules texting friend)

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2
Q

What are phonemes?

A

Speech sounds

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3
Q

What are morphemes?

A

The smallest combo of phonemes that convey meaning

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4
Q

Define syntax and lexicon and grammar.

A

lexicon: your vocabulary
syntax: organization of words
grammar: set of rules to convey meaning within our lexicon

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5
Q

Define common ground.

A

shared knowledge between individuals

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6
Q

What’s audience design?

A

Basing conversation based on the knowledge of parties in the audience

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7
Q

What is the sapir-whorf hypothesis (with example)?

A

the language that we speak influences what we think about, and ultimately how we perceive reality. For example, imagine a man named Steven. Steven has a lot of world experience (travel, jobs), a strong family orientation, and well-developed social skills. If I were to ask you if you could remember Steven’s personality a few days from now, do you think you would be able to? If you spoke Chinese, you’d probably be more likely to remember his personality because it fits the personality type of shi gu. In English, there isn’t a word for that particular personality type. So, an English speaker might have a harder time remembering Steven’s personality compared to a person who speaks Chinese.

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8
Q

Discuss biological preparedness:

A

Chomsky believed that we all have some kind of neurological language mechanism, which he termed the language acquisition device, that we’re born with and that this mechanism helps us rapidly acquire language when we’re young.

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9
Q

What are some critical periods in language aquisition?

A

Children seem to acquire phonemes in their first year. We also seem to lose the ability to discriminate unique phonemes in the first year if they are not part of the spoken language we are raised with.
The ability to learn new grammar remains till around 17.4 years of age.

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10
Q

Language is left lateralized T or F?

A

True

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11
Q

What is Broca’s area and where is it located?

A

inferior frontal cortex in front of motor cortex.
this area helps produce speech. Thus it can cause affluent aphasia where you cannot or have a hard time actually speaking.

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12
Q

What is Wernicke’s area and where is it located?

A

around posterior and superior temporal cortex, at about where it meets parietal cortex (tempo-parietal junction)
helps in phoneme selection and can cause fluent aphasia in people in which they say all the wrong words.

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13
Q

What does the arcuate fasiculus do?

A

It is a white matter tract that connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s area. It allows the area to communicate. It is more medially located.

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14
Q

What is the classic model of language neuroscience? What are some cons of it?

A

It is a three-part model including Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and the arcuate fasiculus.

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15
Q

What are decent physical predictors of intelligence?

A

Brain-to-body ratio, greater cortical surface area, larger prefrontal cortex

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16
Q

How does the HPA axis work?

A

the hypothalamus releases CRF - pituitary glands release ACTH - adrenal cortex releases cortisol

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17
Q

How does the SAM axis work?

A

It targets the sympathetic nervous system so that the adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine.

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18
Q

The James-Lange theory of emotion:

A

First comes arousal, then the emotion

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19
Q

Describe misattribution of arousal:

A

falsely interpreting emotion based on intake of environment and interpretation of arousal.
e.g: study where participants didn’t know side effects of epinephrine shot felt whatever strong emotion portrayed by a confederate

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20
Q

Where does fear extinction & negative emotion regulation partially take place?

A

Amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex (hypoactive in PTSD)

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21
Q

How do hippocampal-learning-deficits function in people with PTSD?

A

over generalizations of context learning in fear conditioning

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22
Q

Define Anhedonia

A

lack of ability to experience pleasure

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23
Q

Define apathy

A

lack of motivation

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24
Q

What are some ways addiction alters the dopamine-reward system?

A
  1. Through the ventral tegmental area: acetylcholine binds to receptors increasing dopamine release
  2. Inhibition of reuptake in the nucleus accumbens
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25
Q

Where can you typically see the earliest signs of Alzheimer’s disease?

A

The entorhinal cortex of the medial temporal lobes (input to hippocampus)

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26
Q

What proteins accumulate in Alzheimer’s?

A

Tau tangles and amyloid plaques

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27
Q

What happens in a stroke of the middle cerebral artery?

A

stroke along the middle cerebral artery can affect motor cortex (movement, drooping face or arms), somatosensory cortex (experiencing numbness, tingling), and Broc’as and Wernicke’s language areas (slurred or unusual speech, if in left hemisphere).
(runs between frontal and temporal lobes)

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28
Q

How do white matter intensities come to be about?

A

mini strokes

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29
Q

List Piaget’s stages in order from birth:

A

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

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30
Q

Key features of the sensorimotor stage:

A
  1. cognitive processes dominated by sensations and movement
  2. gain idea of object permenance
  3. stranger anxiety is also developed
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31
Q

Key features of the preoperational stage (2-7):

A
  1. egocentric
  2. do not yet understand conservation
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32
Q

Key features of the concrete operational stage (7-11):

A
  1. gain reversibility
  2. lack abstract, hypothetical thinking
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33
Q

Key features of the formal operational stage (12+):

A

gain ability to hypothetically think

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34
Q

Describe the stages of neuron development during early lifespan development:

A
  1. through neurogenesis neurons are birthed
  2. they move to their permanent location amongst the nervous system
    3.they differentiate into specific types
  3. maturation: axons, dendrites, and synaptic connections develop
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35
Q

What study helped define cognitive reserve?

A

Nun study: helped show different brain areas help compensate in abnormal aging

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36
Q

What is theory of mind

A

Ability to judge the thought processes of others

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37
Q

What part of the brain is involved in casting judgement of others’ moral judgements?

A

right tempoparietal judgement
- as seen through TMS study by Young

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38
Q

Where were the first mirror neurons discovered?

A

Premotor cortex; mirroring movement of others

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39
Q

The insula is involved in:

A

mirroring emotions, the anterior is largely known for its role in mirroring disgust
the dorsocentral insula mirrors vitality forms

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40
Q

What is a conditioned compensatory response?

A

learned responses that counteract effect of a drug
or example, imagine that you routinely take a drug that lowers your heart rate in the same location every day. Eventually, your body will learn to associate that location with the use of that drug that lowers your heart rate. Once this happens, your body will show a conditioned compensatory response when you enter that location; your heart rate will start to increase to compensate for the heart-rate-lowering effects of the drug that you’re about to take. In other words, your body anticipates taking the drug and compensates for it to maintain normal function. In this example, the drug is the US, the location of the drug use is the CS, reduced heart rate from the drug is the UR, and increased heart rate from the location is the CR. This learned response adds to tolerance.

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41
Q

Predictive cues

A

stimuli that have become conditioned with the reinforcing effects of drug use
ex: driving to the same bar

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42
Q

Salience attributions

A

the prefrontal cortex may add salience attributions or desiring details to a substance to make it stand out

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43
Q

neurological explanations to depression

A
  • hyperactive amygdala
  • damaged hippocampus
  • disrupted reward system
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44
Q

If a patient has a stroke and loses feeling in their left arm, they probably have damage in:

A

parietal cortex

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45
Q

Define transduction

A

conversion of physical energy in the environment to neural signals

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46
Q

What are the functions of the cornea, pupil, and iris?

A

Cornea: transparent covering over the eye
Pupil: small opening in the eye through which light passes
Iris: colored portion, contains muscles that control the size of the pupil

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47
Q

What part of the eye contains photoreceptors?

A

Retina

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48
Q

What is the fovea?

A

The retinal area at the center of your vision

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49
Q

The function of the optic nerve:

A

transduced light information is sent out of the eye along this nerve to the brain

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50
Q

In what manner does the retina receive images in your visual field?

A

Upside down and backwards

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51
Q

T or F: there are three types of cones

A

True

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52
Q

What type of photoreceptor is dominant in the periphery?

A

Rods

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53
Q

Are rods or cones more sensitive to light?

A

Rods, and we rely on these in low light as they are more active.

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54
Q

What types of cones are there and where are cones predominantly located?

A

Fovea and Green, Red, and Blue

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55
Q

Describe the pathway of visual information:

A

Through eye to retina, specifically to photoreceptors. Here, they go from bipolar cells, horizontal cells, and amacrine cells, and then on to the retinal ganglion cells that make up the optic nerve. Finally, it goes to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus before traveling to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobes.

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56
Q

What do neurons in the primary visual cortex respond to?

A

ines/edges and movements of these lines/edges

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57
Q

What visual stream processes information about your location in space?

A

Dorsal, taking it towards the parietal lobe from the PVC and LGN

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58
Q

What does the ventral visual stream do and where is it located?

A

It helps identify objects and make new memories. Located near the hippocampus in the temporal lobe.

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59
Q

What are two main functions of the inner ear?

A

Balance and audition

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60
Q

What are sound waves?

A

Waves of pressure changes

61
Q

Define compressions and rarefractions.

A

C = high pressure air waves
R = low pressure air waves

62
Q

What does frequency relate to?

A

pitch (wave speed)

63
Q

What does amplitude relate to?

A

Bigness/loudness of sound (wave height)

64
Q

How does the tympanic membrane work?

A

Vibrates with frequency of waves. EX: 2000 Hz will travel 2000 times/second

65
Q

The pinna, auditory canal, and tympanic membrane are all structures of the ____ ear.

A

Outer

66
Q

What is the most important structure in the middle ear?

A

ossicles

67
Q

Three main middle ear ossicles and functions:

A

AKA MIS middle ear, from outside on in

The ossicles transmit the sound waves picked up by the tympanic membrane to the membrane of the oval window. In doing so, they vibrate the fluid in the cochlea at the same frequency as the original sound waves.

68
Q

What is the snail-like inner ear structure?

A

Cochlea

69
Q

Describe how sound travels through the inner ear:

A

Within the middle chamber is the organ of Corti. The organ of Corti contains auditory hair cells, the sensor receptors for sound. These hair cells are so called because they have cilia on top of them that kind of look like hairs. The organ of Corti is situated between two membranes; it sits on top of the basilar membrane and below the tectorial membrane. Sound waves travel down the basilar membrane and vibrate the hair cells of the organ of Corti on top of it. These hair cells press up against the tectorial membrane and the bending of the cilia on top activate them. When activated, these hair cells transmit information via nerve pulses down the auditory nerve to the brain. The figure below shows the organ of Corti situated between the basilar and tectorial membranes.

70
Q

Low frequency waves travel further down the basilar membrane. T or F?

A

True - more hair cells are thus activated to correlate to appropriate neural signals

71
Q

The cochlea receives amplified sound waves by the ossicles through an ____ _____________.

A

Oval window

72
Q

Describe the pathway that auditory information travels from the inner ear:

A

Medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobes.

73
Q

The ventral auditory stream is located ______ and partakes in ____.

A

In the temporal lobes; recognizing speech

74
Q

What is the role of the dorsal auditory stream?

A

Located in the parietal lobe, it helps in directing movement

75
Q

What is another way to describe vestibular sensation?

A

Balance

76
Q

How do we balance? Where is vestibular sensation localized?

A

Inner ear structures in the cochlea called the semicircular canals (the posterior, superior, and horizontal canals), the saccule, and the utricle; otoliths and hair cells are smushed around helping us understand our position in space relative to the ground/head movement.

77
Q

What are the somatosensations?

A
  1. touch
  2. temperature
  3. nociception (pain)
  4. proprioception (body awareness)
78
Q

What is the posterior, the somatosensory cortex or motor cortex?

A

somatosensory

79
Q

Touch comes from these receptors in skin

A

mechanoreceptors

80
Q

Thermoception can be picked up from neurons also located in the _____.

A

skin

81
Q

Nocioceptive neurons respond to:

A

tissue damage

82
Q

Is pain a perception or sensation?

A

perception

83
Q

After nocioceptive neurons alert your brain to the location that pain is occurring, what other brain areas seem to be involved?

A

the insula and anterior cingulate cortex

84
Q

What brain area is good at descending pain modulation ?

A

periaqueductal gray nucleus

85
Q

What is the Gate Theory of Pain?

A

non-nociceptive sensory signals can somewhat “block” nociceptive signals in the spinal cord before they reach your brain
EX: activation of touch receptors can actually reduce your experience of pain because they “Close the Gate”

86
Q

What are the chemical senses?

A

Taste & smell

87
Q

Where are taste buds and taste receptors located?

A

In grooves of fungiform papillae

88
Q

Where is the primary gustatory cortex located?

A

Insula

89
Q

Smelling through the nostrils is called:

A

Orthonasal olfaction

90
Q

Detection of smell chemicals from the back of your mouth is known as:

A

retronasal olfaction

91
Q

Taste and smell cortex are near each other in the insula, but the smell cortex is called the:

A

Piriform cortex

92
Q

What is multimodal perception?

A

Describes how we percieve the world through a combination of our senses.

EX: audiovisual visual speech

93
Q

Describe crossmodal phenomena:

A

perception of one sensory modality is affected by the perception of another sensory modality

94
Q

Synesthesia:

A

an ability to perceive a stimulus of one sense as the sensation of a different sense

95
Q

What do we consider a conscious experience?

A

a moment of awareness of any mental content

96
Q

Clive cannot form _____ term memories.

A

Long

97
Q

What is the threshold phenomena theory of conscioussness?

A

consciousness only occurs when a sufficient number of neurons are activated

98
Q

What is blindsight?

A

Blindsight is a phenomenon in which patients with cortical blindness due to damage to primary visual cortex can sometimes still “see” movement, yet they are not consciously aware of seeing it

99
Q

What was the major finding of Soon et al. 2008?

A

found that fMRI activity could predict the participants’ decisions up to 10 seconds before the participants were even aware that they would be making that decision

100
Q

Binocular rivalry describes:

A

When our conscious attention is switched between eyes and competing visual stimuli

101
Q

The corpus callusum does what?

A

connects the left and right hemispheres and allows them to communicate with each other

102
Q

Is a split brain patient saw “ CAT + DOG” respectively:

A

When asked to speak what he saw, he says “dog” because that’s what his left hemisphere knows.
When asked to draw with his left hand, he draws a cat, because that’s what his right hemisphere knows (and his right motor cortex controls his left hand).

103
Q

What is alien hand syndrome?

A
  • one’s hand is not under control of the conscious mind
  • most common in split-brain patients
104
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A

fire not only during movements, but also while watching others move

105
Q

Define attention:

A

A moment of awareness

106
Q

What is an example of trying to reduce divided attention?

A

when you are driving in your car in busy traffic and turned down the radio to help you see the road better

107
Q

What is alerting and what brain area may be involved?

A

Alertness refers to external stimuli getting your attention; The locus coeruleus produces and releases the neurotransmitter norepinephrine throughout the brain

108
Q

Where is the locus coerueleus?

A

The pons of the brainstem

109
Q

What is orienting and what brain area may be involved?

A

Both overtly and/or covertly directing attention towards the external stimuli. the superior colliculi of the midbrain and the frontal eye fields of frontal cortex (both involved in visual orienting). These regions direct your eyes toward stimuli in the environment.

110
Q

What are executive functions?

A

A series of cognitive processes to achieve some goal

111
Q

Where are executive functions localized?

A
  • striatum
  • posterior parietal cortex
  • prefrontal cortex
  • Anterior cingulate cortex
112
Q

What is the goal of the attention network task?

A

To differentiate between alerting, orienting, and executive function

113
Q

What is alpha activity?

A

Seen when focusing attention inwardly, it involves large-scale brain oscillations that occur within the frequency range of 8-12 hz

114
Q

Patients with contralateral neglect typically have damage to their ______ __________ ________, which makes them unable to provide attention to their _____ ______ ____________.

A

right parietal cortex, left visual field

115
Q

Where is the nucleus that helps regulate our endogenous clock?

A

Hypothalamus

116
Q

The hypothalamus synchronizes to light based on info from:

A

photoreceptors

117
Q

What is the name of the endogenous clock nucles?

A

superchiasmatic nucleus

118
Q

A neutral tone is paired with shock. A rat’s conditioned response is:

A

Freezing

119
Q

What cells give input to the superchiasmatic nucleus?

A

Intrinsic photoreceptive retinal ganglion cells

120
Q

What hormone does the pineal gland release?

A

melatonin

121
Q

How are sleep stages measured?

A

polysomnography

122
Q

K-complexes and sleep spindles exist in non-rem. true or false?

A

true

123
Q

What is the role of the pons during REM sleep?

A

during most vivid dreams, inhibits motor neurons

124
Q

What bodily system clears brain waste at night during sleep?

A

The glymphatic system

125
Q

What may be a leading purpose of sleep?

A

Metabolism regulation

126
Q

What are two primary hunger hormones?

A

Leptin and Ghrelin

127
Q

What type of memories are consolidated during NREM sleep?

A

Declarative, consciouss

128
Q

What memories are consolidated during REM?

A

Non-declarative, unconscious

129
Q

During REM sleep, PGO and slow, theta waves likely support:

A

REM sleep seems to support the strengthening of localized synapses related to newly encoded memories. This localization may also explain why REM sleep seems to preferentially benefit unconscious memories, as consciousness seems to require more widespread neural activity

130
Q

Where do PGO waves come from?

A

From the pons to the lateral geniculate nucleus, then occipital cortex, which could explain eye movement

131
Q

What neurotransmitter is linked to REM?

A

acetylcholine

132
Q

Describe the active system consolidation model:

A

NREM slow-waves coordinate activity between the hippocampus (sharp-wave ripples), thalamus (spindles), and neocortex and allow system-wide consolidation, where temporary hippocampal memories are transferred to long-tern neocortical stores. Local plastic changes during REM sleep strengthen these newly formed connections.

133
Q

Which 2 brain areas also involved in attention and working memory are harmed by acute sleep deprivation?

A

posterior parietal cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

134
Q

Acute sleep deprivation may increase sensitivity of the amygdala to ______ stimuli.

A

Aversive

135
Q

T or F: sleep deprivation cannot reduce neurogenesis.

A

False

136
Q

A sudden loss of muscle tone while awake

A

cataplexy

137
Q

Is the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex over and under active during REM?

A

Under

138
Q

activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreams

A

PGO waves activate the forebrain, which makes the brain formulate a weird “reality” in an altered state

139
Q

Explain Hobson’s theory of protoconsciousness:

A
  • primary consciousness = perception and emotion (REM)
  • secondary - conscious awareness that is metacognitive
140
Q

How do we study learning in aplaysia?

A

gill withdraw reflex

141
Q

excitatory postsynaptic potentials represent:

A

synapse strength

142
Q

how do AMPA and NMDA receptors work?

A

AMPA: glutamate binds, sodium rushes in
NMDA: MG is displaced and calcium and sodium rush in causing an EPSP
- more calcium creates more AMPA thus demonstrating learning

143
Q

Why is glutamate important in learning?

A

it is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter

144
Q

List the actions with the classical conditioning term:
A) Dwight reaching out his hand (in response to the Altoid)
B) Startup sound (before pairing with the altoid)
C) Startup sound (after pairing with the altoid)
D) Dwight reaching out his hand (in response to the startup sound)
E)

A

A) UR
B) NS
C) CS
D) CR
E) US

145
Q

Operant conditioning differs from classical mostly because if the outcome of the behavior is pleasant, the behavior is likely to be repeated. If the outcome of the behavior is not pleasant, the behavior is not likely to be repeated. This is called:

A

The Law of Effect

146
Q

Getting up to turn off your alarm in the AM is:

A

Negative reinforcement

147
Q

The bobo doll study demonstrated what type of learning?

A

observational

148
Q

Basic explanation of the DA motive system?

A

When an animal encounters something rewarding, the ventral tegmental area sends dopamine signals up to the ventral striatum, to a nucleus there called the nucleus accumbens. In this case, dopamine is involved in “stamping” in the memory for the reward that occurred following the particular behavior that led to the reward.
Hippocampus will also send some contextual info to NA.

Midterms and Finals (2 decks)

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