3.5.2 Antarctica - A global commons

Question 1

What are the four main threats to Antarctica?

Answer 1

• Climate change
• Fishing and whaling
• Tourism and reseach
• Mineral extraction

Question 2

Antarctica’s climate

Answer 2

• There is very little available water. Inland areas receive less than 166 mm of precipitation per year (which is low enough to classify it as a desert) and most precipitation that falls is frozen.
• It is very cold - the average temperature is -49’C.
• ## There is very little sunshine in winter.

Question 3

Plants in Antarctica

Answer 3

Cold temperatures with little available water mean that very few plants and animals can survive there, and the ones that do have to be specially adapted.

Antarctica’s plant life is mainly made up of mosses and lichens, and only two species of flowering plants grow.

Question 4

Size of Antarctica

Answer 4

Antarctica covers an areas about 14 million km2, so it’s larger than Europe.

Question 5

Water in Antarctica

Answer 5

Antarctica contains 90% of all the ice on Earth – around 70% of all the Earth’s freshwater.

Question 6

Sea life in Antarctica

Answer 6

There’s abundant sea life, e.g. fish, seals and whales. Birds, like albatrosses and penguins, survive on the sea life.

The marine ecosystem is fragile — if the population of one species decreases it affects other species.

Question 7

How is climate change a threat to Antarctica?

Answer 7

1) In the past five decades, areas along the west coast of Antarctica have warmed by as much as 3 °C — one of the fastest temperature rises on Earth.

2) Warming has caused the ice shelves (large sheets of ice) around Antarctica’s Weddell Sea and Ross Sea to melt. As the ice shelves have retreated, the Antarctic environment has changed dramatically.

3) Species of penguin that are adapted to sea ice have declined as the ice has melted. They have been replaced in some areas by chinstrap penguins, which are more adapted to open sea conditions.

4) Antarctic krill depend on the environment the sea ice provides. The krill population has declined by around 80% since the 1970s as the sea ice has melted. Krill are the main food source for penguins, whales and seals, so the decline in the number of krill is leading to declines in the populations of these animals as well.

5) Melting sea ice has an impact on global sea levels, which have risen by around 3 mm a year since the 1990s — this could make the edges of the ice shelves unstable, increasing the rate of melting.

Question 8

How is the seach for minerals a threat to Antarctica?

Answer 8

1) There are believed to be a lot of minerals in Antarctica. E.g. there are large underground deposits of coal and iron ore in the Transantarctic Mountains.

2) There are also large reserves of oil underneath the Southern Ocean.

3) So far there hasn’t been any mining in Antarctica. It is currently banned, but conditions aren’t favourable anyway — it is too far to transport machinery to Antarctica from any other landmass and the landscape and climate would make mining difficult and expensive.

4) However, this may change in the future due to increasing demand for minerals and oil as supplies are depleted elsewhere. Mining in the Antarctic would damage the environment.

Question 9

How is fishing a threat to Antarctica?

Answer 9

1) Over-fishing threatens many species, e.g. in Antarctica the Patagonian toothfish is being fished unsustainably, making it vulnerable to extinction. Antarctic krill are the most fished creature — in 2013 over 200 000 tonnes of krill were fished from the Antarctic. Reduced fish and krill populations have knock-on effects on other species in the food chain, e.g. the larger fish, marine mammals and birds that eat them.

2) There are legal limits on how much fish can be caught per year to keep stocks at a sustainable level. However, lots of illegal fishing takes place, which is difficult to monitor.

Question 10

How are tourism a threat to Antarctica?

Answer 10

1) Tourism increases shipping and air travel to Antarctica, leading to water and air pollution. There is also a risk of boats grounding or hitting icebergs, which can cause fuel spills.

2) Tourists can disturb breeding colonies of birds. Trampling damages fragile vegetation and erodes the landscape. Litter and waste disposal damages habitats and can harm wildlife, especially because decomposition rates in cold environments are slow.

3) Non-native species may be introduced, e.g. on tourists’ clothing — these may alter food webs and ecosystems.

Question 11

How are research a threat to Antarctica?

Answer 11

Antarctica is also important for scientific and environmental research. This requires lots of facilities, including bases for the researchers to live, roads to transport supplies and places to store fuel.

Until the 1980s a lot of the waste created in these bases was either burned, thrown into the sea or dumped.

Question 12

How is whaling a threat to Antarctica?

Answer 12

1) Whaling was common in the mid-20th century, but has declined since 1982 when regulations were brought in to ban all commercial whaling. Some countries continue to kill whales for ‘scientific’ purposes.

2) Whaling significantly decreased the Antarctic whale population, which is now slowly recovering. However, whales are slow breeders, so it will take a long time for populations to fully recover.

Question 13

What are the international laws that help to protect Antarctica?

Answer 13

• The Antarctic Treaty (1959)
• The Protocol on Environmental Protection (1991)

Question 14

The Antarctic Treaty (1959)

Answer 14

An agreement about how to sustainable manage Antarctica’s ecosystems. It has now been signed by 53 countries. The rules laid out in the treaty include:
- Antarctica should only be used for peaceful reasons – no army bases or weapons are allowed on Antarctica.
- Countries should cooperate on scientific research in Antarctica by sharing plans, researchers and results.
- Antarctica should remain in the global commons – individual countries cannot make a claim to it.

Under the 1959 treaty, all bases and equipment in Antarctica can be inspected at any time, with different countries taking responsibility for carrying out inspections. However, inspections don’t occur very often.

Question 15

1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection

Answer 15

This was signed in 1991 and added to the Antarctic Treaty.

It focuses on protecting Antarctica’s fragile environment, particularly by banning all mining in Antarctica.

It also set rules to:
- Help protect Antarctic plants and animals
- Regulate waste disposal
- Prevent pollution.

Under the 1991 protocol, an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is required for any new activities.

Question 16

Resolving disputes in Antartica

Answer 16

There is no system to ensure all countries abide by the rules. If there any disputes between countries, then they are encouraged to negotiate. Otherwise, disputes can be taken to the International Court of Justice.

The countries involved must reach a consensus over all decision regarding Antarctica. Tackling problems can therefore be slow and difficult – e.g. between 2012 and 2016, plans for Antarctic marine reserved repeatedly failed because of opposition from Russia and Ukraine.

Question 17

Global Institutions which help to govern Antarctica

Answer 17

• International Whaling Commission (IWC):
• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP):

Question 18

International Whaling Commission (IWC)

Answer 18

• The IWC is responsible for regulating whaling and ensuring that the whale population is at a sustainable level.
• In 1994 the IWC set up a whale sanctuary in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica in order to protect whales.
• However, campaigners have criticised the IWC for not properly monitoring the number of whales in the sanctuary.

Question 19

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Answer 19

• UNEP is a UN agency and is the main institution that governs the world’s environment. UNEP is responsible for reporting activity in Antarctica to the UN.
• The programme in Antarctica is run by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), which aims to stop illegal fishing and conserve the Antarctic ecosystem, e.g. by setting up protected areas.
• However, its effectiveness is limited by individual countries protecting their own interests – it took 5 years for CCAMLR to negotiate the creation of a marine protected area in the Ross Sea, and it hasn’t reduced fishing quotas in this areas.

Question 20

The Whaling Moratorium

Answer 20

In 1982 the IWC introduced a Whaling Moratorium that banned all commercial whaling around the world, including in Antarctica. It is believed to have helped whale populations in Antarctica to increase.

The success of the Whaling Moratorium is monitored by estimating whale populations based on sightings and modelling.

Some countries (like the US and Australia) believe there should be a better monitoring system, including registering all whaling boats with the IWC and placing independent observers on all whaling boats. Other countries (like Japan and Norway) say that the IWC does not have the authority to do this.

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), including Greenpeace, have said that the Whaling Moratorium is also poorly enforced.
- In 2018, Japanese whalers killed over 300 Antarctic whales for ‘scientific research’ despite the ruling.

Question 21

Effects of Global Governance in Antarctica around the world

Answer 21

1) Monitoring of melting ice in Antarctica has informed efforts to combat climate change. This affects people’s daily lives — e.g. using renewable energy sources, conserving electricity and using cars less.

2) Global governance may slow down short-term economic growth in some countries, e.g. limits on how many whales and fish can be caught limits the amount that countries can sell. However, it secures resources for the future.

3) Global governance allows greater scientific exploration of Antarctica. People from all over the world can conduct research in Antarctica. Collaboration allows researchers to pool resources, e.g. sharing research stations.

4) Global governance allows tourists to visit Antarctica safely and securely.

Question 22

The role of NGOs in monitoring and enforcing rules

Answer 22

NGOs play an important role in monitoring possible threats to Antarctica and protecting its environment.

As they don’t act on behalf of a particular country, NGOs are well positioned to observe whether countries are sticking to the laws governing Antarctica and to call international attention to those who aren’t.

• One key NGO involved in Antarctica is the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC).

Question 23

Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)

Answer 23

• ASOC was formed in 1978 from a group of NGOs who were concerned that some countries were planning to make it legal to search for oil, gas and minerals in Antarctica. ASOC successfully campaigned to make Antarctic Treaty meetings more transparent, including allowing NGOs to attend.
• As an NGO, ASOC is interested in protecting the environment — it does not have an interest in trying to exploit Antarctica for resources or fishing, and will speak up against exploitation by individual countries.
• Today, ASOC monitors environmental changes in Antarctica and checks whether countries are sticking to the rules — e.g. monitoring whether countries are following the 1991 Environment Protocol, protecting the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary from attempts to re-establish commercial whaling and ensuring that krill populations are sustainable.
• ASOC also monitors the effects that climate change is having on Antarctica, e.g. by checking melting ice and sea levels around Antarctica. ASOC campaigns with other NGOs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.