3.3 Flashcards
3.3 Retention & Transfer
!
Stages of Learning:
Bernstein’s Stages (bio mechanical)
Emphasizes motor control and biomechanics
Stage 1 - Reduce degrees of freedom
◆ Solve the degrees of freedom problem by not controlling (freezing) non-essential parts of the body.
◆ Then, extra resources can be allocated to controlling the relevant body parts.
novice initial stage- choppy
- freeze as much as possible
- only using necessary parts of body- only focus on important
- single degree of freedom- single jnt muscle more body
Bernstein Stage 2
Stage 2 - Release degrees of freedom
Once some success is obtained, improve performance
by releasing some of the “frozen” degrees of freedom.
Can result in new, more effective, movements to be
explored.
-more fluid natural
-Where have we seen the advantage of degrees of freedom?
Stage 3
Bernstein’s Stages,
Emphasizes motor control and biomechanics
Stage 3 - Exploit passive dynamics
Maximize effectiveness and efficiency of movement by
exploit the passive dynamics of the body and environment.
stretch-shortening cycles
This includes muscle elasticity, body momentum and gravity.
- less energy, same accuracy
- change degree of freedom for better movement pattern
Dots bonus slide:
- regression?
- injury?
ex. cast
- lose proper functionality
- freeze° of freedom free up again 4
Summary and limitations
Summary and limitations:
Stages are not discrete nor is learning
uni-directional. These theories are generally
useful but, like learning, are fluid, not concrete.
Performance = singular event
acute: Stress/ long layoff
-regression happens in movement
Fitts’:
Cognitive-Fixation-Autonomous
_ difficult to know which > may know if well-known
Bernstein’s:
Reduce DF -> Release DF > Exploit dynamics
Summary & limitations
Summary and limitations:
-Fits thought performance could be regressive:
E.g. when performing under high stress, you
might revert to earlier stage performance.
Fitts’:
Stress / Long layoff
Cognitive-> Fixation •
Autonomous
Bernstein’s:
Reduce DF -> Release DF Exploit dynamics
missing page:
Bernstein’s release DF doesn’t apply to all skills eg gymnasts (still rings)
require. freezing
Not all skills are forgotten equally
- performance curve for learning of task with 8 SR pairs (lights and switches)
- longer retention intervals produced more forgetting
- you do retain something even after a year
Not all skills are forgotten equally:
-Performance curve for learning of continuous hand/foot tracking task
-almost no forgotten even after 2 years
-Six-minute practice periods
Training sessions
-5x less error at end (significant)
-complex tracking using both hands and feet
Not all skills are forgotten equally:
➔ Conclusion
◆ Discrete tasks with large cognitive components (e.g. remembering abstract SR pairings) are forgotten relatively quickly.
Continuous tasks are retained very well over long periods of time.
-riding bike, swimming, driving car
Warm up decrement
Cases where we need some time to warm-up before optimal performance can be obtained?
psychological
cases where we need some time to warm-up by optimal perf. can be obtained?
*everything
-sport > singular moment to perform
-initial decrement at beginning of performance
Ex. Goalie sitting & waiting
Skill retention: what happens after learning:
Warm-up decrement
Why after even 20 minutes do you show an initial decrease in performance?
-even if you only have 20 minute gap forgetting is demonstrated
Warm-up decrement
➔ A psychological factor (NOT physiological warming up of muscles etc.) that is brought on by the passage of time away from a task and is eliminated with the performance of a few trials.
Warm-up decrement
➔ Hypothesis
◆ A retention interval causes the loss of the “set”
- retention interval over I-min -> forgotten or dropped
- not perf first time doing again
➔ psychological factors not related to memory.
What’s a “Set”
◆ A collection of psychological activities (e.g. target of attention, perceptual focus, postural adjustments) that are lost when a skill stops being performed (e.g. during rest).
Warm-up decrement
Warm-up Decrement
➔ For what types of skill / performance will the warm-up decrement have the highest impact?
➔ Where else do we see practice immediately before performance? How does this relate to when coaches call timeouts?
Why some athletes try free throws without the ball before actual free throws.
-reduce warm-up decrement
• icing kicker
- made 1st field goal
- post timeout misses
- even limited waiting = forgetting
Skill Transfer
-generalize complex skills for learners = easier transfer
Similarity
➔ The idea that the more similar two skills are, the more transfer (or, generalization) will occur from learning one to performing the other.
➔ Has not received definitive experimental support, though is supported in some specific domains (see next slides). -quant info
QBs Pitcher
- similar patterns but different mechs
Similarity
➔Fundamental movement patterns:
◆ When two skills share the same movement structure (timing, musculature etc) transfer is likely to be higher between skills.
-tennis vs volleyball
Similarity
➔ Perceptual elements:
◆ When two skills share similar information processing
demands, transfer is likely to be higher.
Examples? Interception tasks (fly ball, football receiver, tennis return etc.)
- observational physics > perceive time catch
Similarity
➔ Strategic and conceptual similarities:
◆ When tasks share a common set of rules, guidelines,
strategies or concepts, transfer is facilitated.
Examples?
Driving performance in one country vs negative transfer to another country
• movement patterns, conceptual elements
Examples?
Driving performance in one country vs negative transfer to another country (England to Canada driving)
Transfer as learning progresses
➔ With more practice, does performance of a given skill become more or less specific?
➔ What do you think this means for the transfer of this skill to/from other skills?
Therefore transfer is highest when just beginning to learn a skill.
• when you become moreskilled, skill becomes more specific (perceptual Cues)
- novice learner overhead serve- more xfer from one sport to next (mumt patterns /concepts)
Transfer as learning progresses
➔ Motor transfer is small
◆ Even when tasks appear similar, transfer tends to be minimal.
Therefore the most effective practice is always on the target skill, not on some related skill thought to transfer to target skill.
teaching skill not of interest have little impact on something of interest
- want to chop garlics actually chop garlic
practice intended skill, not expect afer from not intended
ex. wax on, wax off
- want to do karate
- mundane, monotonous tasks
Transfer as learning progresses
➔ Motor transfer is small
-correlations among tests
Transfer as learning progresses
➔ No transfer of basic abilities: Fundamental abilities cannot be trained through practice.
Therefore practice sessions designed to improve general abilities (e.g. quickness) are not very effective.
-ability or skill
Performance = nature (ability/genetics) x nurture (skill/practice)
Transfer of part practice to whole performance
➔ When training for a complex task (e.g. musical performance, gymnast routine) it is overwhelming to practice all components at once.
➔ However, practicing each component in isolation is also challenging.
-breaking down whole content
And break into parts
- no feedback Alex, cycling > Ihr (record 55km) finished 2 laps shy - adjust himself /signs discomfort *practice did not include discomfort
Transfer of part practice to whole performance
➔ Part practice: A procedure where a complex skill is broken down into parts that are practiced separately
➔ Whole practice: practice of a complex skill in its entirety without breaking it into parts.
Will learning components practiced in isolation transfer to the whole performance?
Transfer of part practice to whole performance
➔ Part practice is effective for:
◆ Serial skills of long duration (e.g. dance routine)
provided that errors in one part of the task do not significantly impact the performance of the next part (part-to-part interaction is low).
Example of other long duration serial skills?
- part -to-part interaction low
- not effective
Transfer of part practice to whole performance
➔Part practice is NOT effective for:
◆ Skills where the performance on one part of the task affects the performance on another part of the task (part-to-part interaction is high). These skills would require whole practice.
-gymnastics routine
Examples of skills requiring whole practice?
Transfer of part practice to whole performance
➔ Will part practice be effective for serial skills of
short duration?
◆ e.g. separating golf swing into backswing and
downswing and follow through?
➔ No…
◆ the part-to-part interaction for rapid discrete movements if very high and means any part practice is ineffective.
Can also result in the development of more than one motor program for the same task.
Transfer of part practice to whole performance
➔One potential solution (even for complex rapid serial skill is):
◆ Progressive part practice:
● A procedure where parts of a skill are gradually
integrated into larger units during practice
Skill transfer: simulation and transfer
➔ Simulator:
◆ A practice device designed to mimic features of a real
world task.
Simulators are important when:
➔ Simulators are important when:
- Skill is expensive or dangerous
- Facilities are limited
- Real practice is not possible
ex. Helix Baumgartner
> free diving sound barrier
Measuring simulator effectiveness (on criterion task)
A) Shows there is positive transfer from simulator to criterion task (greater degree of success)
(B) Shows the simulator “saved” 1.5 hours of criterion training time (learning)
How is (B) a cost?
When is that “cost” worth it? Why?
Simulation and transfer
➔Two types of fidelity (how well a simulator matches the real world):
1. Physical fidelity:
◆ The degree to which the physical or surface features of the simulated and target task are identical.
-highoverlap
Simulation & transfer
➔
Two types of fidelity (how well a simulator matches the real world):
2. Psychological fidelity:
◆ The degree to which the behaviours and processes produced in the simulator replicate the target task.
- internal sense
- sensations/ internal processes
Simulation and transfer
How/when would physical and psychological fidelity be important for an airline pilot? CPR trainee?
- immersive environment
turbulence, distances, etc. - break ribs CPR
ex. zwIft
Movement on bike = movement of avatar
steers on its own -physical fidelity not there
psychological -can’t replicate psycho fidelity
3.4 Organizing and Scheduling Practice
Off task practice considerations: motivation
Motivated performers (learners) will:
- Devote more effort
- Practice more seriously
- Have longer practice sessions
Motivation: intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to a learners internal drive to learn a skill
Determined by:
1. Autonomy – control of your destiny
2. Competence – skill mastery
3. Relatedness – being accepted in social context
Motivation: intrinsic motivation
Do you think autonomy, competence and relatedness are weighted equally by every learner?
Motivation: goal setting
Learners are encouraged to adopt sport specific performance goals.
Has learning been demonstrated at this point? (graph)
-experimenter set goals and participant set goals- better performance and retention overall
-if we want someone to perform at optimum standard we must set goals to work toward
Motivation: goal setting
- Learners are encouraged to adopt sport specific performance goals.
- After a retention test, groups with specific goals (participant set) performed better than a non-specific goal group
Motivation: goal setting
- Learners are encouraged to adopt sport specific performance goals.
- This is most likely driven by: Autonomy, Competence or Relatedness?
- competence
- want practical goals
Motivation: goal setting
Risks
What happens if goals are too hard? -frustrating
What happens if goals are too easy? -boredom/ reduced motivation
-needs to be just right
-encourage specific, challenging but not impossible
Motivation: augmented feedback
- is information provided to the learner from an external source.
- birds eye view feedback
- perspective don’t have
- In general, it has been shown that providing feedback improves motor learning
- coach through movement - give perspective/ comparator
Motivation: augmented feedback
- Even false feedback can improve performance!
- All participants given true feedback about performance. “Better” group also told their performance was 20% better than other people who had done the task. “Worse” group told their performance was 20% worse.
Motivation: augmented feedback
Even false feedback can improve performance!
People who received false social-comparative feedback performed better than those who received negative or no feedback
-relatedness- knowledge of relative standing or positioning
Motivation: augmented feedback
This is most likely driven by: Autonomy, Competence or Relatedness?
-relatedness
Motivation: Self-Regulation of Practice
- Gives learners ownership over some of the component of practice.
- hand over some control
- What aspects of practice could a learner control?
- physical environment
- 2nd half lecture
Motivation: Self-Regulation of Practice
Gives learners ownership over some of the component of practice.
E.g. How much practice, when they want feedback, how to organize practice/rest…
Motivation: Self-Regulation of Practice
- Gives learners ownership over some of the component of practice.
- Studies show that self-regulated practice results in better learning than the identical practice (yoked) across groups of participants.
- ownership both positive and negative- amount of control
- This is most likely driven by: Autonomy, Competence or Relatedness?
- autonomy
Instructions
- Usually spoken (or written, or demonstrated) and provide information about the very first aspects of the skill.
- good to know how to use both/all
- Can include information about: basic posture, where to look, what might happen (e.g. potential feedback).
During what Fitts’ stage are instructions useful?
Cognitive- working through mental processing of a skill
Autonomous- lose need for instruction
-you develop feed forward process
Instructions
Can fail to capture some of the subtle aspects of movements – it’s hard to put it into words…
- eyes open and closed drawing example in class
- no visual info= more instruction
Instructions
What things did you need to consider when giving instructions? What worked? What didn’t?
-What information?
-How much information?
-How precise?
-How often / when?
One option to get around “word” limits is to demonstrate, or model = observational learning.
Instructions: directing attentional focus
Even though the instructions are very similar, the instruction for external focus results in better performance / learning than the instruction for internal focus
- balancing task on balancing board (continuous and motor)
- paying attention to general intended result (external) -increased reduction in error
- attention to action itself (internal)
- given no instruction (control)
Mental practice (cognitive process)
- Learners think about the skill being learned, mentally rehearses the steps sequentially, and imagines doing the actions that would achieve the goal.
- Controversy around whether mental practice benefits motor learning specifically, or just the cognitive aspects of learning a skill.
Mental practice: is it really motor learning?
How “cognitive” and “motor” are these two tasks?
Peg board insertion and curser match up
-predominantly motor other than first sessions
Mental practice: is it really motor learning?
Physical practice (most change) Mental practice- significantly greater than no practice (peg board), better than no practice (curser) No practice (barely any change- peg board)
Mental practice: is it really motor learning?
Conclusion
Conclusion:
-Mental practice is not as effective as physical practice, but… it does facilitate learning.
-Importantly, the benefits of mental practice are not restricted to cognitive tasks or the cognitive (early) learning phase.
tips and tricks:
-0 equipment
-imagery in as many settings as possible
Organizing practice and rest:
how often to practice
Tension between getting as much practice as possible and the potential adverse effects of too much practice. (balance)
-psychological and behavioural effects in this class
What are some potential problems with too much practice?
How often to practice: is more always better?
- 60 – 80 hours of keyboard training. Trained over 20 to 60 days.
- Best performance was not from most or least intensive training.
- People reported liking the most intensive training the best.
- 2 hour, twice a day (worst, practicing 4x as much as lowest group)
- highest satisfaction but worst retention
- 2 hour once a day best and most retention
How often to practice: is more always better?
Conclusion
Conclusion
- Intensive practice will not always facilitate the most learning. Learners are not always aware of the optimal conditions for learning.
- Highlights the need to balance practice efficiency (e.g. 20 days of training) with practice effectiveness (e.g. best learning performance).
Work & Rest During Practice
Massed practice:
is a practice schedule with short rest periods between practice trials (rest is often shorter than the time for a trial).
Distributed practice:
is a practice schedule with long rest periods between practice trials (often spend more time resting than practicing).
Work & Rest During Practice
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Massed vs Distributed practice?
- Massed = more practice and more fatigue
- Distributed = less practice and less fatigue
- physiological and mental fatigue
Work & Rest During Practice
Discrete tasks:
- When a task is brief (< 1s) research has shown rest plays no role in performance (e.g. cannot make rest short enough to matter).
- Therefore, massed practice is likely best since it maximizes the time spent practicing.
Work & Rest During Practice
Continuous tasks
- When a task is longer (e.g. 30s per trial) we see significant differences between groups practicing with different amounts of rest between trials.
- not clear cut
Work & Rest During Practice
Continuous tasks- following curser
- Longer rest = better performance.
- Longer rest = better learning (After Retention).
- Differences between rest groups gets smaller on retention tests.
- no rest- decreased improvement
Work & Rest During Practice
Continuous tasks
Conclusion:
-More rest results in more effective learning.
-But more rest means the learning is less efficient/practical (e.g. takes more time).
Ideas to make rest more useful?
Organizing practice and rest
Inserting Mental Practice & Observation
- In order to improve efficiency, we can insert periods of mental practice, or learning by observing (e.g. watching demonstration) during our rest from physical practice.
- hybrid practice design
- This can also improve the ability to self-detect errors and gives time to reflect, providing motivation to correct errors on the next trial.
3.5: Organizing and Scheduling Practice II
Schema Theory: Invariant features of a football pass
- upper limb movement
- grip on ball
- step length
- no 2 throws the same (overhand/ underhand)
- pay attention to features changing
GMP Review
Invariant features of a football pass.
Members of the same class have these characteristics:
-Common movement sequencing exists.
-Common temporal organization exists.
-Same action can often be carried out by different effectors.
-Same action can differ in surface features.
GMP Review: Invariant features of a football pass.
Once learned, a GMP for football throwing can be applied to many different specific situations by specifying movement parameters in the movement programming stage
-allows wide variety of performance
GMP Review: Invariant features of a football pass.
- Learner evaluates the environment, decides what kind of throw is required and specifies the proper parameters to the program.
- But how are the proper parameters selected?
- ideally, no changes have to be made
Overview Schema theory
Schema Theory suggests how we learn general motor programs by learning sets of rules (schema) relating surface features to parameters.
-relate surface features to parameters (muscle force, relative timing, etc.)
Schema theory
- human body way of doing linear regression
- building connections between force and throw
- this is exactly how much force for given distance
- never thrown but know force for distance
Schema theory- Problems and solutions
- Try various parameter values and learn what surface features are produced.
- not consciously done
- Solves the storage problem because you don’t need to remember every parameter → feature pair, only the underlying function (e.g. general motor program).
Schema theory- Problems and solutions
- Try various parameter values and learn what surface features are produced.
- Solves the novelty problem because you can estimate a new parameter value from the stored function.
Constant vs variable practice
Constant practice: -involves practicing only a single member or a class of movements (e.g. only one set of parameters for a GMP).
-same amount vary delivery
Variable practice:
-involves practicing several members of a class of movements (e.g. several sets of parameters for a GMP).
-throwing different types of throws (change effector etc.)
-catching tennis balls instead of footballs
Same amount of practice, different variability.
Which is better?
3 questions in choosing one method over the other: Which of variable or constant….
- Has better performance during acquisition?
- Has better performance on a transfer test?
- Has better performance on the practiced skill after retention?
Which is better?
3 questions in choosing one method over the other: Which of variable or constant….
1. Has better performance during acquisition?
Constant - specifically practicing only the one skill optimizes learning of the skill.
- same skill with very little variation
- basic movement pattern
- novice learners
- new learners= practice/know how to do 1-way
Which is better?
3 questions in choosing one method over the other: Which of variable or constant….
2. Has better performance on a transfer test?
Variable - leads to significantly more generalization.
- practicing variable manner (no movements same)
- generalize different tasks better
- schema- relying on learner to use previous experience to something unknown
Variable performs better on a transfer test
Experiment: arrival of moving light
-hand and arm response
-Constant = during learning, only practice 5, 7, 9 or 11 mph (only 5, only 7, etc.)
-Variable = during learning, practice 5, 7, 9 and 11 mph (completely random)
-rely on past experience to allow to generalize not knowing what to expect (transfer theory)
(same practice and exposure but varied in nature)
-Test on new speeds (1,3,13,15-just slightly different)
-speed/accuracy trade off threshold why error goes up
Which is better?
3 questions in choosing one method over the other: Which of variable or constant….
3. Has better performance on the practiced skill after retention?
Either - depends on the context
Which has better performance after retention?
Evidence for context dependance
Jump shots = show linear decline in success based on distance. (variability)
-further away = decreased success
-actual close to predicted
Set shots = show a non-linear boost when taken from the free throw line.
-actual far from predicted
-fixed nature (some pattern every time)
-variable nature would not benefit
Practice structure (retention): variable- variation/ flexibility required constant- 1 version of task performed
Blocked vs. Random practice: overview
When learning more than one skill (e.g. tennis serve, backhand, volley) how should you arrange your practice?
Blocked:
Many trials of one task practiced consecutively before moving to another task
Random:
Practice trials from several different tasks are completed in a random (mixed) order
Key = Same amount of practice, different schedule
Shea and Morgan experiment
Experiment: Participants practice 3 different tasks -Blocked = better during acquisition -minimal interruption -intuitive approach -Random = better after retention -mixed order of task -Benefit of random practice extends to the scheduling of variable practice -scheduling how variable practice scheduled
Perception of practice (predicted/ actual)
Random: in tune with performance
-thought learned less and did essentially
Blocked: worse
-thought did better and learned more but didn’t
Why is random practice so effective: elaboration hypothesis
Frequent task changes forces the learner to make the tasks more distinct, making them more meaningful and better remembered.
Episodic- lived memory, meaning and association
-better understood and retained
Why is Random Practice so Effective?
Forgetting hypothesis
Frequent task changes cause new motor “solutions” to be generated each time a task is newly encountered (e.g. switched to). Re-solving the motor problem means performance is low during acquisition, but learning the solution means it is retained better.
-freezing/ freeing degrees of freedom
-forgetting facilitates learning
forget/ move to more efficient
Summary
Random practices forces the learner to be more engaged, rather than simply repeating an action
Random practice highlights task differences making them more meaningful and easier to remember
Random practice causes the learner to forget short-term solutions after each task change
…this means the learner must generate a new solution which improves long term learning
-retention tasks
-tape ankles, scene management (work on automatic) - go through as many situations as possible
Extensions
-lab/ discrete unimanual tasks
Random practice benefit extends to real world learning (Badminton, baseball, handwriting).
Random practice benefit limited when task is too easy or too hard.
In terms of elaboration / forgetting what happens at these easy / hard task extremes?
Extensions
Random practice benefit extends to real world learning (Badminton, baseball, handwriting)
Random practice benefit limited when task is too easy or too hard
Easy = no motor solution required,
-doesn’t need practice/ nullify
Hard = task (or solution) becomes too challenging if it switches all the time.
-no meaningful way to solve it
-break into sub components
-random practice with parts of a skill (olympic lifting)
Extensions
How many consecutive trials are optimal for learning is an individual difference.
Practice schedules where the success of the learner informs when a task switches are called Contingency schedules
Lecture 3.6: Augmented Feedback
External
Overview: classifying feedback
Feedback- 1 of most important factors of performance other than practice
Extrinsic/ augmented:
1) knowledge of results
2) knowledge of performance
Intrinsic feedback
Intrinsic Feedback is information provided as a natural consequence of making an action.
Shouldn’t be anything new
Literally everything we have learned about feedback up until now…
Extrinsic feedback
Augmented Feedback refers to information that is over and above what the learner can get themselves (enhances intrinsic feedback)
In the field of motor learning, feedback is used as shorthand for augmented feedback. If referring to any form of feedback besides augmented, you must clarify in your answers
Knowledge of results (KR)
is augmented, usually verbal, information about the success of an action with respect to the intended goal.
Often redundant in ADL. -high diver- land wrong know immediately
Often required to know the success of performance. -scoring/ objective metrics
KR cont’d
Figure 12.2 Absolute errors in a linear-positioning task as a function of knowledge of results (KR). (The group numbers indicate the number of presentations of KR received before KR withdrawal; group 0 switched to a KR condition shown at the right, where its performance is compared to group 19’s first five trials replotted
-even having a little feedback gets better each time
-frequency increases performance
Performance Results: The more KR provided, the greater error reduction seen
Learning Results: When switched to a constant KR condition, the 0 performance group showed much greater improvements in performance when compared to the first trials of the 19-KR group. (doesn’t say much whether or not constant KR results in good learning though).
KR cont’d
Design: different types of KR given, the more precise/accurate the feedback provided, the better performance seen.
Learning results: All forms of KR showed a slight decline during retention. Demonstrates quality of KR is important as nonsense KR can have a greater decriment on learning than no KR at all.
-sharp change during acquisition, then plateau in precise group
Knowledge of performance (KP)
AKA kinematic feedback.
is augmented information about the movement pattern the learner has just made.
Doesn’t necessarily tell about movement success in terms of meeting the goal.
-entirely on process and performance
Knowledge of performance (KP)
AKA kinematic feedback.
is augmented information about the movement pattern the learner has just made.
Doesn’t necessarily tell about movement success in terms of meeting the goal.
-entirely on process and performance
KP cont’d
Design: participants performed a throwing task while being videotaped and their performance was reported via various conditions. A control group of KR was used as well
Results: Correcting cues correcting technique resulted in the best performance. KR alone and the videotape alone resulted in the worst. When given no context or specific area to direct attentional focus, participants focused primarily on their outcome (ie. KR).
-not enough to show video, need to guide and direct
KP cont’d
Design: In a simple motor skill acquisition study, participants were given feedback that related to either their physical movement (ie. internal focus) or related to the goal of the task (ie. external focus)
Results: External focus resulted in better performance and retention (learning) than the internal focus feedback.
-helps facilitate better learning and acquisition
KR vs KP
KR:
- info about goal outcome
- often redundant with inherent feedback
- usually provided as a score
- often used in lab research
KP:
- info about movement pattern
- usually distinct from inherent feedback
- usually kinematic information
- often provided in everyday activities
Same:
- verbal
- augmented
- provided after movement
How much to give and when:
precision of feedback
-is based on the level of accuracy with which feedback describes the movement or outcome. -comes with practice
-Feedback RE movement errors can be expressed in terms of:
Magnitude of error
Direction of error
-Qualitative info RE direction of learner’s error (ie. early vs. late, left vs. right) is critical to align movement with goal.
Precision of feedback
Level of feedback precision is dependent on learner’s skill.
Early learner errors are large and movements are poorly regulated.
-novice- movement constrained
Movement control is much more precise at higher skill levels
novice- tell them anything will impact
Summary and average feedback
Summary Feedback:
is given after a series of trials with information about each attempt in the series.
Average Feedback:
is given after a series of trials with information about the average performance in the series.
Both may serve to decrease the dependency producing effect
-early- more dependant on augmented
Summary feedback example
Design: 3 groups of feedback (summary after 20 trials, immediate after every and both had both) were measured during acquisition with feedback and transfer periods without feedback.
Performance Results: Summary showed the worst performance during acquisition, while both and immediate groups were comparable
Learning Results: Summary showed much better transfer post acquisition compared to both and immediate, and drop substantially when compared to the both and immediate groups when no feedback was provided during the transfer trials.
Interpretation: summary is good for short term but shows no due benefit over immediate over a greater period of retention.
Summary
Design: Looked at whether the number of trials being summarized mattered - groups provided feedback ranged from every trial to summaries of every 15 trials.
Results: Performance decreased as the number of trials being summarised increased.
Learning Results: Learning was best and essentially only showed positive trends during the delayed retention in the 5 trials group.
Interpretation: 5 trials appears to be the optimal number of trials for learning and performance if summary feedback is to be used.
Average feedback example
Design: Subjects given feedback in either summary, average, or every trial formats.
Results: Participants performed the least error in the 5 trial average groups. This observation was consistent across relatively immediate retention delays of 10 minutes, and longer retention delays of 2 days.
Interpretation: Average and summary feedback provide similar optimal benefits to learning when provided in 5 block increments.
performance not acquisition
Faded feedback (combo)
-sees the quantity of feedback decrease as skill level increases.
novice-more, pro-less
An F1 race car driver would require less feedback than an amateur rally driver
Bandwidth feedback (zone)
-provides feedback only when error exceeds a preset tolerance level.
E.g., Timing task with movement goal of 500 ms.
Band of Correctness + 50ms.
Means by which feedback can be naturally faded
Bandwidth feedback cont’d
-Does the magnitude of BW matter?
Design: Various ranges of bandwidth of feedback tested during acquisition and retention trials
Performance results: no substantial difference seen between bandwidth groups during acquisition trials
Learning Results: 10% bandwidth saw the greatest level of learning during retention trials.
Interpretation: Having a bandwidth of 10% of the intended movement objective provided significant benefits in retention trials and showed greater levels of learning when compared to smaller bandwidth groups (if bandwidth is too small, feedback is given to infrequently, while too big results in given too often).
Feedback frequency
Absolute Feedback frequency
is the total number of feedback presentations for a series of attempts.
feedback given 100 trials out of 400 = absolute frequency of 100
Relative Feedback frequency
is the proportion of attempts for which feedback is given.
feedback given 100 trials out of 400 = relative frequency of 25%
-% or proportion
Feedback frequency
Design: various levels of relative frequency provided during same motor task. The figure shows the score of the trial performed immediately after KR is provided.
Results: Although the 10% group shows a much quicker plateau in performance compared to the other groups, the same general trend is seen across all groups by about the 5th trial.
Interpretation: Relative frequency of feedback does not appear to significantly affect acquisition when provided in different relative amounts
Feedback frequency
50% relative frequency superior for learning compared to 100% relative frequency. (dependancy)
Schmidt & Winstein, 1990.
100% may produce dependency effects.
Utilised faded feedback
High relative frequency early in task acquisition and decreased during later trials.
Feedback frequency
Design: same as previous study but added a retention test
Results: Although performance showed more or less the same trend as before, during immediate and delayed retention trials, the 50% relative feedback group showed a greater significant level of learning in terms of RMSE. 100% relative feedback group showed a significant decline in performance during delayed retention.
Interpretation: 100% group is provided no time to solve error on own whereas 50% group is, so learning in longer intervals is affected vastly
Feedback timing
Instantaneous feedback:
provides feedback immediately after trial completion.
Can be detrimental to learning
No time for response produced feedback
Delayed feedback:
provides feedback several seconds or more after trial completion
-bike 1 hr ride example
Feedback timing
Design: delayed vs instantaneous feedback during acquisition and retention
Results: Delayed showed better performance and learning than instantaneous
Interpretation: Giving the learner time to interpret their own performance appears to be beneficial for performance and learning.
Feedback timing (KR)
Design: Feedback given after various numbers of trials in 2 experiments.
Results: The 0 trial delay group showed the best performance during the first experiment as well as during the experiment.
Interpretation: When the feedback is compatible with the movement, there is minimal interference between extrinsic and intrinsic feedback. The greater the delay of feedback, the greater the negative impact on performance
delayed better- giving learner time to interpret their performance and solve problem on their own
-avoid dependency
perception of feedback
Design: participants determined how much feedback they would be given, the yoked group was given the exact same amount of feedback, while the summary group was given summaries of every few trials. Control group received no feedback.
Results: Control performed the worst and showed minimal if any improvements in performance/learning. Self-determined not only showed high performance levels (on par with summary group) but showed the least decline in retention indicating the greatest extent of learning.
Interpretation: Giving the learner agency over their performance and learning in terms of feedback appears to be beneficial when compared to the teacher/instructor having total control over feedback scheduling.
the other aspect of this study not shown here but is in the text, is the fact that the self determined group weaned themselves off of feedback as acquisition trials went on over time.
Functions of feedback: overview
- Motivational
energize and direct behaviour. - Reinforcement
event that follows response to cause repetition or avoidance of action (+/-ve). - Informational
information about errors that lead to corrections and movement refinement. - Dependence
heavy reliance on feedback causes decreased proficiency when feedback is withdrawn.
Motivation
Augmented feedback that energizes & directs behaviour:
During repetitive movement practice sessions.
During minimal progress stages.-plateaus
If failing to perceive own progress. -no idea of relative/ normative standings
Reinforcement
is an event following a response increasing the likelihood of response repetition under similar circumstances:
+ve reinforcement (encouraging good behaviour).
-ve reinforcement (discouraging bad behaviour).
Information
provides error-correction information. Issues to consider: as provider What When How precise Consider everything mentioned in the previous section of this lecture.
Information
Descriptive Feedback:
describes the error an individual makes during the performance of a skill.
May be of benefit for more skilled performer
Prescriptive Feedback:
provides error description and suggestion for error correction.
May be more effective for novice performer
