3.2.3 Research methods Flashcards
Name the 4 research methods
- Experimental method
- Observational techniques
- Self-report techniques
- Correlations
What is random allocation?
When participants have same chance of being placed in any condition in experiment
Describe how you could randomly allocate participants to 2 condtions
- Name each participant on separate piece of paper
- Put all names in a hat
- Pick out names individually
- 1st half of names are assigned to condition A
- 2nd half of names assigned to condition B
Name 4 experimental methods
- Laboratory Experiments
- Field Experiments
- Natural Experiments
- Quasi Experiments
What is meant by a laboratory experiment?
- Experiment that takes place in controlled environment
- Where researcher manipulates IV and records effect of DV
- Involves controlled EVs and randomly allocating participants to conditions
Laboratory Experiments
Name 2 pros
- Replication
- Due to high level of control
- Find if results are valid
- High control over EV
- Researcher can ensure that effect on DV is result of manipulation of IV
- Show true cause and effect = high internal validity
- Researcher can ensure that effect on DV is result of manipulation of IV
Laboratory Experiments
Name 2 cons
- Demand characteristics
- Results invalid
- Lack generalisability
- Lab experiment = artificial
- Participants may behave in strand ways = behaviour cannot be generalised = low external validity
What is meant by a field experiment?
Experiment that takes place in natural setting where researcher manipulates IV and records effect of DV
Field Experiment
Name a pro
- Higher mundane realism = environment is more natural
- Produce behaviour that’s more valid = high external validity
- Especially when participants don’t know they’re being studied
Field Experiment
Name 3 cons
- Precise replication is difficult due to lack of control
- Harder to control extraneous variables
- Harder to establish cause and effect between IV and DV
- Ethical issues
- Participants cannot consent to being studied
What is meant by a natural experiment?
Experiment where IV occurs naturally and not manipulated by researcher (is external)
- Setting could still artificial
- DV would happen even if researcher were not studying IV (e.g. IV e.g. adoption/natural disaster)
Natural Experiment
Name 2 pros
- Provides opportunities for research that may not be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons
- High external validity
- Involve study of real life issues
Natural Experiment
Name 2 cons
- Naturally occurring event rarely happens
- Limits the scope for generalising results to other similar situations
- Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions
- Can’t be sure if IV affected DV
What is meant by a quasi experiment?
- IV had not been determined by anyone (it’s naturally occurring within the participant)
- IV is internal & can’t be manipulated by researcher
- e.g. IV = twin, old, young, where they have IQ over 100
Quasi Experiment
Name a pro
- Under controlled conditions
- Have same strengths had lab e.g. clear cause and effect, high internal validity, ability to replicate
Quasi Experiment
Name 2 cons
- Lack ecological validity
- Researcher cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions
- May be confounding variables = affects validity
Why conduct observations?
Experimental method doesn’t always provide most suitable way to study particular behaviour
Name 8 observational techniques
- Naturalistic Observations
- Controlled Observations
- Covert Observations
- Overt Observations
- Participant Observation
- Non-participant Observation
- Unstructured Observations
- Structured Observations
Describe Naturalistic Observations
Watching and recording behaviour in setting which it would normally occur in
e.g. watching infant play in its natural environment (nursery school)
Naturalistic Observations
Name a pro
- High external validity
- Findings generalisable
Naturalistic Observations
Name 3 cons
- Lack control = replication is difficult
- Hard to have confidence in results
- Difficult to control extraneous variables
- Hard to judge any pattern in behaviour in valid way
Describe Controlled Observations
Watching and recording behaviour within structured environment (where some variables managed)
e.g. Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation
Controlled Observations
Name a pro
- Extraneous variables controlled
- Easier to cause and effect & replicate observation
Controlled Observations
Name a con
More artificial = lack external validity ∴ can’t generalise to real life
Describe Covert Observations
- Participants’ behaviour is watched and recored without their knowledge
- Behaviour has to be public & happening anyway for observation to be ethical
Covert Observations
Name a pro
- Removes problem of participant reactivity & ensures behaviour observed will be natural
- Increases validity of data
Covert Observations
Name a con
Ethics questionable = public may not want to be observed
Describe Overt Observations
- Participants’ behaviour is watched and recored with their knowledge
- Observers try to unobtrusive as possible = use one way mirrors
Overt Observations
Name a pro
More ethical = no issues with privacy and informed consent
Overt Observations
Name a con
- Participant reactivity e.g. social desirability
- Behaviour may not be valid
Describe Participant Observation
Researcher becomes member of group whose behaviour they’re watching and recording
Participant Observation
Name 2 pros
- Researcher can experience situation as participants do
- Gives insight to lives of people being studied = increases validity of findings
Participant Observation
Name a con
Researcher may identify too strongly with those they’re studying and lose objectivity
Describe Non-participant Observation
- Researcher remains outside group whose behaviour they’re watching
- Records behaviour in more objective manner
Non-participant Observation
Name a pro
Maintain objective psychological distance = less danger of ‘going native’
Non-participant Observation
Name a con
- Lose valuable insight as they’re not participating
- May not understand behaviour
Describe Unstructured Observations
- Researcher records all relevant behaviours but has no system
- Observer has to record every instance of behaviour in as much detail
Unstructured Observations
Name a pro
- Useful for researchers who are observing behaviours/situations that haven’t been conducted before
- As kind of pilot study to see what behaviours might be recored using structured system
Unstructured Observations
Name 2 cons
- May be too much to record
- Behaviours recorded = most visible but may not be most important/relevant behaviours
Describe Structured Observations
Use of various ‘systems’ to organise observations
Name the 2 mains ways to structure observation
By using:
- Behavioural Categories
- Sampling Procedures
Describe Behavioural Categories
- Behaviour needs to be operationalised ∴ break it down into set of categories
- e.g. when observing infant behaviour = smiling, crying and sleeping
- Should be objective, cover all possible behaviours and mutually exclusive
Name 4 reasons why behavioural categories are important
- Allow observers to tally observations into pre-arranged groupings
- Provides clear focus
- Greater reliability
- Easier to quantify data
Name 2 Sampling Procedures
- Event sampling
- Time sampling
What is event sampling?
Counting no. of times a certain behaviour occurs in certain time
What is time sampling?
Recording behaviours in given frame
e.g. every 30 seconds
Describe observer bias
- Difficult for observers to be objective
- What researchers observe can be distorted by their expectations of what’s likely or what they hope to see
How can we make observations more reliable?
By using at least 2 observers to record same data
What is meant by inter-observer reliability?
Extent to which 2 or more observes agree
When is the inter-observer reliability considered high for data?
More than 80% agreement on observations
What are questionnaires?
Set of written questions designed to collection information
Name 3 qualities that good questionnaires have
- Filler questions
- Irrelevant questions to distract respondent from main purpose of questionnaire
- Sequence for questions
- Start with easy questions
- Pilot study
- Test questionnaire on small group of people
Name 3 pros of questionnaires
- Use them for lots of people cheaply and quickly
- Respondents may feel comfortable to reveal personal/confidential information
- Reduces experimenter bias
Name 2 cons of questionnaires
- Biased
- Take long time to design
Name 2 types of interviews
- Structured Interview
- Unstructured Interview
Describe Structured Interviews
Pre-determined questions
Describe Unstructured Interviews
- New questions developed during course of interview
- May begin with general aims
Name 3 designs of interviews
- Recording interview
- Effect of interviewer
- Non-verbal communication
Name 3 questioning tips for interviews
- Be aware of questions asked & avoid repeating them
- Avoid probing too much and asking why too often
- Ask more focused questions
Interviews
Name 3 pros
- Easily be repeated ∵ questions are standardised
- Different people can be compared due to standardised questions
- More detailed information
Interviews
Name 3 cons
- Interviewer bias
- More expensive = need skilled interviewer
- Comparability difficult if interviewer behaves differently or different interviewer
What are correlations?
Relationship between 2 variables to see if trend/pattern exists
Describe the difference between correlations and experiments
- Experiment = controls or manipulates IV to see effect on DV
- Possible to infer cause and effect relationship between IV and DV
- Correlation study, researcher doesn’t manipulate IV ∴ can’t assume cause and effect relationship
- e.g. if we found strong positive correlation between caffeine and anxiety ≠ caffeine causes anxiety
Write a correlational null hypothesis
e.g. Age and beauty = co-variables
There is no relationship between age and beauty, any relationship will be due to chance factors
Write a correlational non-directional hypothesis
e.g. Age and beauty = co-variables
There will be a relationship between age and beauty
Write a correlational directional hypothesis
e.g. Age and beauty = co-variables
There will be as positive relationship between age and beauty
Describe Curvilinear Relationships
Relationship is not linear = predictable relationship through Yerkes-Dodson law
Correlations
Name 3 pros
- Used to investigate trends in data
- Correlation = significant = further investigation justified
- Correlation = insignificant = rule out causal relationship
- Can be easier repeated = findings can be confirmed
- Quick and economical
- No need for controlled environment or manipulation of variables
- Data collected by others = correlations less time consuming
Correlations
Name 2 cons
- Lack internal/external valid
- e.g. methods used to measure academic achievement may lack validity
- Or sample used may lack generalisability
- As researcher measures variables without manipulating = no clear cause and effect
What is meant by self-report?
When participants gives information to the reseacher
