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KNES 323 > 323 Midterm > Flashcards

323 Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Homeostasis

A

Condition of equilibrium or balance in the body’s internal environment

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2
Q

Intrinsic Controls

A

Local control inherent to the organ.

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3
Q

Extrinsic Control

A

initiated outside an organ

accomplished by the nervous and/or endocrine systems.

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4
Q

Feedback Loop

A
  • A response of a system made after a change; can be negative or positive.
  • Primary type of homeostatic control.
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5
Q

Feedforward Loop

A

Anticipate change

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6
Q

A negative feedback loop opposes…

A

Initial change.

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7
Q

Control centre

A

Compares sensor input with a set point.

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8
Q

Effector

A

Makes a response to produce a desired effect.

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9
Q

Main Goal of a Negative Feedback Loop

A

To keep an internal environment stable

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10
Q

Negative Feedback Loop is Activated When…

A

When the controlled variable reaches the extremes of the set range.

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11
Q

A positive feedback loop…

A

Amplifies initial change (reinforces stimulus); does not contribute to homeostasis.

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12
Q

Does a negative or a positive feedback loop occur more often? And why?

A

Negative feedback loop because It is used to counteract systems positive only occurs when we need more of something

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13
Q

Negative feedback loop example

A

Blood pressure control.

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14
Q

Positive feedback loop example

A

Contractions during childbirth, blood clotting.

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15
Q

Effect of Ageing on Homeostasis

A

Slows down with age

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16
Q

Does feedback or feedforward occur more

A

Feedback

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17
Q

Frequency of Homeostasis Mechanisms

A

Feedback more so than feedforward.

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18
Q

Feedforward mechanism example

A

Saliva production in response to smelling food

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18
Q

Feedforward regulation occurs through..

A

The Central Command.

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18
Q

Central Command

A

prime the body for changes that are about to take place during exertion; originates in the CNS.

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19
Q

Central Command Example

A

Increased oxygen demand leads to increased cardiac output.

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20
Q

What systems does blood pressure depend on (4)

A
  • Circulatory
  • Urinary
  • Nervous
  • Endocrine
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21
Q

What are macromolecules?

A

large molecules built from smaller organic molecules

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22
Q

4 main macromolecules

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Lipids
  3. Proteins
  4. Nucleic acids
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23
Q

What breaks down macromolecules? And which of the 4 does this exclude

A

Hydrolysis

excludes: Lipids

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24
Q

How is are lipids broken down?

A

Lipolysis

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25
Q

What is the simplest macromolecule

A

carbohydrates (saccharides)

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26
Q

Hydrogen oxygen ratio

A

2:1

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27
Q

What is the simplest sugar?

A

monosaccharides

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28
Q

3 main types of carbohydrates

A
  1. Monosaccharides
  2. Disaccharides
  3. Polysaccharides
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29
Q

Glucose is important for

A

production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

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30
Q

Fructose

A

aid in glycolysis and replenish liver glycogen stores

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31
Q

ribose and deoxyribose

A

pentose sugars found in nucleic acids. deoxyribose is found in DNA, ribose in RNA

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32
Q

How are disaccharides formed?

A

when two monosaccharides are joined in a dehydration synthesis (one of the monosaccharides is always glucose)

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33
Q

Three main disaccharides

A
  1. Sucrose
  2. Lactose
  3. Maltose
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33
Q

Sucrose

A
  • most common dietary dissachride
  • occurs naturally
  • Glucose-fructose
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34
Q

Maltose

A
  • found in beer, cereal, and germinating seeds
  • contributes to a small amount of the dietary carbohydrate consumption
  • glucose-glucose
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35
Q

Lactose

A
  • only natural source is from milk and milk sugar products
  • least sweet
  • galactose-glucose
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36
Q

What are Polysacchrides?

A

long chain of monosaccharides

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37
Q

4 main types of polysaccharides

A
  1. Starch
  2. Glycogen
  3. Cellulose
  4. Chitin
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38
Q

Starch

A

A storage carbohydrate in plants

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39
Q

Two main forms of starch

A

amylose and amylopectin

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40
Q

amylose vs amylopectin

A

Amylose: long straight chains twisted to form helix (breaks down slow)
Amylopectin: highly branched chain (breaks down fast b/c increase in SA)

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41
Q

Glycogen

A

Animal storage of carbohydrates. Found in liver and muscles. Highly branched, fast to break down.

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42
Q

Glycogen is converted into glucose via

A

Glycogenolysis

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43
Q

most abundant organic polysaccharide

A

Cellulose

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44
Q

Chitin

A

A structural supporting polysaccharide, found in exoskeletons of all arthropods.

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45
Q

Function of Proteins

A

perform essential functions

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46
Q

Proteins are made up of

A

polymers of specific amino acids (20)

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47
Q

Protein function is determined by..

A

structure and shape

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48
Q

Primary vs Secondary vs Tertiary protein structure

A

Primary: sequence of amino acids
Secondary: alpha helices or beta
sheets
Tertiary: 3D folding pattern

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49
Q

Enzymes

A

Catalyst in reactions

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50
Q

What would happen without enzymes

A

life could not exist

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51
Q

Energy Input

A

Energy in ingested food.

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52
Q

External Work

A

Energy expended when skeletal muscles are used to move external objects.

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53
Q

Thermal Energy

A

Energy from nutrients not used to perform work. About 75% of all energy input.

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54
Q

Internal Work

A

All forms of biological energy expenditure that do not accomplish mechanical work outside the body.

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55
Q

Neutral Energy Balance

A

Energy input = Output. Body weight remains constant.

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56
Q

Positive Energy Balance

A

Intput is greater than output. Body weight increases.

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57
Q

Negative Energy Balance

A

Energy input is less than output. Body weight decreases.

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58
Q

Metabolic Rate

A

Total amount of energy we need to expend in order to perform a given task.

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59
Q

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

A

Minimal internal energy expenditure needed to maintain in order to meet basic body functions.

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60
Q

In order for BMR to be measured, a person should be…

A

At physical and mental rest, in a comfortable temperature, and having comsumed no food within 12 hours.

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61
Q

Influence of Exercise on Metabolic Rate

A

During exercise, metabolic rate increases due to extra energy requirements. Following exercise, metabolic rate is increased due to higher muscle mass.

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62
Q

Metabolism

A

Process which breaks down food to release and store chemical energy which can then be used for body processes.

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63
Q

Anabolic vs Catabolic

A

Anabolic: make Bigger
Catabolic: make simpler

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64
Q

Exothermic vs Endothermic Reaction

A

Exo: release energy
Endo: require energy

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65
Q

Callular Metabolism

A

Makes use of all chemical reactions occurring within cells.

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66
Q

Activation Energy

A

Energy needed to get a reaction started.

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67
Q

How do Enzymes affect Activation Energy

A

Enzymes lower the activation energy, but don’t change the reaction itself.

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68
Q

Enzyme Pathways

A

Enzymes control only a single type of chemical reactions. If one enzyme is not present, the entire process stops.

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69
Q

Metabolic Regulation

A

Cell uses specific molecules to regulate enzymes in order to promote or inhibit certain chemical reactions.

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70
Q

Competitive Inhibition

A

Substance that resembles the normal substrate competes with the substrate for the active site found on an enzyme.

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71
Q

Non-Competitive Inhibition

A

Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site on the enzyme, Can block the the enzymes and change shape of the enzyme or the binding site.

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72
Q

Allosteric Site

A

A specific receptor site on some part of an enzyme molecule remote from the active site.

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73
Q

Allosteric Activatiors

A

increase reaction rates

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74
Q

Cofactors and Coenzymes

A

Non-protein helper molecules that cause enzymes to work properly

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75
Q

Most common coenzymes are…

A

Dietary vitamins.

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76
Q

Feedback Inhibition

A

When a reaction product is used to regulate its own further production.

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77
Q

Feedback Inhibition

A

When a reaction product is used to regulate its own further production.

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78
Q

Metabolic Reactions are controlled by…

A

Cellular demands

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79
Q

ATP is used…

A

Any time something is built up or broken down in the body.

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80
Q

ATP Makeup

A

Nucleotide derivative (base, sugar, three phosphates). Base is adenine, sugar is ribose. Third bond is unstable.

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81
Q

Most common energy source in the Body

A

Carbohydrates.

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82
Q

Sugar Catabolism

A

Breaks down polysaccharides into individual monosaccharides.

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83
Q

Glucose and ATP

A

Glucose is the most common fuel for ATP used in cellular respiration.

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84
Q

Triglyceride Breakdown

A

Tryglicerides can be used for energy via beta-oxidation.

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85
Q

Amino Acid use

A

Either for the buildup of new proteins or the breakdown in ATP production.

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86
Q

Amino acids are used in ATP production during…

A

Chronic starvation.

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87
Q

Preferred fuels for ATP production

A

Glucose, triglycerides, amino acids, in that order from most to least preferred.

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88
Q

ATP-ADP Cycle acts as a…

A

Energy shuttle.

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89
Q

Exergonic Reaction

A

A chemical reaction that releases energy.

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90
Q

Endergonic Reaction

A

Reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.

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91
Q

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions for ATP

A

Used for ATP production when energy is released during oxidation reactions and captured when ATP is formed.

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92
Q

Anabolic Reactions in ATP

A

ATP to complex molecules.

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93
Q

Catabolic Reactions in ATP

A

complex molecules to ATP.

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94
Q

Exception to Saccharide H:C:O Ratio

A

Deoxyribose. Should be 2:1:1

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95
Q

Three Phases to Cellular Respiration

A

Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, Electron Transport Chain

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96
Q

Glycolysis

A

The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate.

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96
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Breakdown of glycogen into glucose.

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97
Q

Glycolysis occurs in…

A

Cytosol

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98
Q

Glycolysis Reactants and Products

A

Two ATP, one glucose, one NAD+; two pyruvate, 4 ATP, and 2 NADH.

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99
Q

Most important step in glycolysis

A

Step III, catalysed by phosphofructokinase (PFK). First commited step of glycolysis.

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100
Q

Up-Regulation of Glycolysis

A

When a cell is very low on ATP, the concentration of AMP will increase. High concentrations of AMP triggers glycolysis.

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101
Q

Down-Regulation of Glycolysis

A

High levels of ATP and citrate (first product of the CAC) trigger a decrease in glycolysis.

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102
Q

Anaerobic Respiration

A

convert energy in ht presence of oxygen

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103
Q

The Kreb’s Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

A

Second stage of cellular respiration, start of aerobic respiration. Will only continue if oxygen is available.

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104
Q

Kreb’s Cycle Takes place in…

A

The Matrix of the mitochondria.

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105
Q

Total Products at the end of the Citric Acid Cycle

A

Four ATP, ten NADH, and two FADH2.

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106
Q

Electron Transport Chain

A

Last step of cellular respiration. Generates most of the ATP created in cellular respiration.

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107
Q

ETC Creates ATP through…

A

Four redox reactions leading to moving hydrogen ions across a gradient.

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108
Q

Chemiosmosis

A

Pumping protons through specific channels in mitochondrial membranes from inner to outer.

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109
Q

ATP Synthase

A

The enzyme that make ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

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110
Q

Total Cellular Respiration Products

A

38 ATP per glucose molecule in ideal circumstances.

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111
Q

Real-life Number of Expected ATP Production during Cellular Respiration

A

30-32 ATP per glucose molecule.

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112
Q

Fermentation

A

metabolism without oxygen

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113
Q

Fermentation used in humans

A

Lactic Acid Fermentation

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114
Q

Fermentation is common in…

A

RBC and skeletal muscle without sufficient oxygen.

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115
Q

Lactate Accumulation leads to…

A

Soreness and muscle fatigue.

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116
Q

Late Fermentation

A

Lactic acid is metabolised by the liver and NAD+ is recycled to enable glycolysis again

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117
Q

Other Body Fuel Sources

A

Fat and amino acids.

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118
Q

Protein as a Fuel Source

A

Only used during starvation.

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119
Q

Regulation of Body Systems if done by…

A

Nervous and endocrine systems working together.

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120
Q

Primary aim of the endocrine system

A

Maintain homeostasis

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121
Q

Endocrine vs. Nervous Pathways

A

Nervous uses the nerves and neurotrasmitters, very fast responses. Endocrine uses the blood and hormones, responses not as quick but longer lasting.

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122
Q

Exocrine Glands

A

Glands which secrete products into ducts, which lead to outside the body.

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123
Q

Method of Nervous and Endocrine System

A

Need to have signals bind to receptors on target in order to get cells to initiate a response.

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124
Q

Nervous System Signals

A

Neurotransmitters.

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125
Q

Endocrine System Signals

A

Hormones

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126
Q

Hormone Targets

A

Hormones travel to a specific organ by using the blood and bind to a specific protein receptor cell.

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127
Q

Three Main Hormone Pathways

A

Endocrine, paracrine, autocrine.

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128
Q

Endocrine Pathway

A

Hormones travel through the blood stream and are picked up elsewhere.

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129
Q

Paracrine Pathway

A

Hormones affect nearby cells to the one they were produced in.

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130
Q

Autocrine Pathway

A

Hormones affect the same cell that produced them

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131
Q

Hormones are either…

A

Lipid soluble or water soluble

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132
Q

Hormone Regulation

A

Can be controlled through alterations to hormone receptors, either up-regulated or down-regulated

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133
Q

Up-Regulated vs Down-regulated hormones

A

Up: more sensitive
Down: less sensitive

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134
Q

Down-Regulated Hormone Receptors

A

Receptors become less sensitive.

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135
Q

Hormone Synergistic vs Antagonistic Effect

A

Synergistic: work together
Antagonistic: oppose

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136
Q

Hormones are typically released in…

A

Short Bursts.

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137
Q

Hormone Secretion is Regulated by…

A
  • Chemical changes in blood
  • nervous system signals
  • other hormones
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138
Q

Most endocrine glands are under…

A

Negative feedback control in order to maintain homeostasis.

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139
Q

Hypothalamus

A

The main link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Releases 7 hormones which drive the endocrine system

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140
Q

Hypothalamus Hormones: How many releasing How many inhibiting

A

5 releasing hormones

2 inhibiting hormones

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141
Q

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus Connected via…

A

infundibulum (stalk) and the hypophyseal portal system (for blood and hormones)

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142
Q

Ademohypophysis

A
  • anterior lobe

- makes up 75% of the weight of the pituitary

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143
Q

Anterior Pituitary Gland Cell Types

A

Somatotrophs, lactrotrophs, thyrotrophs, gonadotrophs, and corticotrophs.

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144
Q

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

A

Most plentiful anterior pituitary hormone, aids in muscle and bone growth.

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145
Q

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

A

Stimulates the production of thyroid hormones from the thyroid glands

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146
Q

Prolactin (PRL)

A

Together with other hormones, intiates and maintains milk secretion by the mammary glands

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147
Q

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

A
  • In females, intiates follicle development and secretion of estrogen
  • In males, stimulates sperm production in the testes
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148
Q

Adrenocroticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A

Controls the production and secretion of adrenal cortex hormones (glucocorticoids)

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149
Q

Neurohypophysis

A
  • Posterior lobe of pituitary
  • Made of neural tissue.
  • stores but does not release hormones
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150
Q

Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)

A

Decreases urine output as part of a negative feedback loop where osmoreceptors in hytpothalamus monitor blood osmotic pressure

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151
Q

Thyroid Gland shape and composed of

A
  • butterfly shape

- Composed of follicular cells and parafollicular cells

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152
Q

Follicular Cells

A

Stimulated by TSH to produce thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).

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153
Q

Thyroid Hormones function

A
  • increase ATP production

- accelerate body growth with hGH and insulin

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154
Q

Parafollicular Cells produce

A

calcitonin

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155
Q

Calcitonin

A

Regulates calcium homeostasis by lowering calcium blood levels

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156
Q

Parathyroid Glands

A

Two glands, inferior and superior, located on the posterior thyroid

157
Q

Parathyroid Hormone

A

works with calcitonin and calcitriol to regulate calcium homeostasis

158
Q

Adrenal Glands

A

Located on top of each kidney, consists of an outer cortex and inner medulla

159
Q

Three main types of Adrenal Cortex Hormones

A
  • Mineralocorticoids
  • glucocorticoids
  • weak androgens
160
Q

Mineralocorticoids.

A

Regulate mineral homeostasis

161
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

Affect glucose homeostasis

162
Q

Weak Androgens

A

Hormones with masculinizing effects

163
Q

Aldosterone

A

Major mineralocorticoid secrete, regulates sodium and potassium homeostasis

164
Q

Aldosterone is controlled via…

A

The renin-angiotension-aldosterone (RAA) pathway

165
Q

Adrenal Cortex Androgen Examples

A

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

165
Q

DHEA

A

In females, promotes libido and is converted to estrogens.

In males- no effect

166
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A

Stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system to secrete catecholamines

167
Q

Catecholamines

A

Dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

168
Q

Pancreas Exocrine Functions

A

Production and secretion of digestive enzymes

169
Q

Pancreas Endocrine Functions

A

Through the pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans), insulin and glucagon are released

170
Q

Alpha Cells vs Beta Cells

A

Alpha: Secrete glucagon
Beta: secrete insulin

171
Q

Pineal Gland

A

Attached to the third ventricle, secretes melatonin

172
Q

Thymus promotes

A

maturation of the immune system’s T cells.

173
Q

Hormonal Regulation of Metabolism

A

Mainly caused by insulin and glucagon

174
Q

Fed State

A

High blood glucose levels. Release of insulin increases glucose uptake,

175
Q

Fasting State

A

Blood glucose levels are low. Release of glucagon increases break down of glycogen, formation of glucose, and glucose release from the liver

176
Q

Without insulin…

A

Glucose cannot enter muscle or fat

177
Q

ATPase

A

Enzyme which splits terminal phosphate from compound.

178
Q

Oxidative Respiration

A

Breaks down fuel with oxygen in the mitochondria.

179
Q

EEG

A

Non-invasive recording of brain electrical activity

180
Q

EEG Waveforms

A

Beta, Alpha, Theta, Delta

181
Q

Beta Waves

A

High frequency, low amplitude waves observed in awakened states. Conscious and logical thought, tend to have stimulating effects

181
Q

Alpha Waves

A

Frequency between beta and theta. Associated with deep relaxation

182
Q

Theta Waves

A

Associated with daydreaming and sleep.

183
Q

Delta Waves

A

Slowest recorded brain waves, often found in infants and young children. Associated with the deepest level of sleep

184
Q

EEG and Sleep

A

Sleep stages are often categorized based on prominent EEG waveform

185
Q

Non-REM Sleep Stages

A

Stage I-IV.

186
Q

Non-REM Stage I-IV

A

1: More theta and loss of alpha activity
2: Theta and Delta waves increase.
3: Higher voltage delta
4: More than 50% slow delta

187
Q

Formed Elements of Blood

A
  • Red blood cell
  • white blood cells
  • Platlets
188
Q

Function of Blood

A
  • transport oxygen and nutrients
  • defense
  • homeostasis maintenance
189
Q

Blood Transportation Pathway

A
  • GI tract (pickup nutrients)
  • liver (detoxify)
  • Through heart into the lungs (pick up oxygen)
  • Body
190
Q

Blood Protection

A

Prevents blood loss through platelets and infection through white blood cells.

191
Q

Blood Colour

A

The more oxygenated, the more bright red. The less oxygenated, the more dull red.

192
Q

Blood Viscosity

A

The thickness of the blood indicates how easily it flows (resistance)

193
Q

Blood Temperature

A

Should be slightly higher than normal body temperature at 38 degrees C.

194
Q

Normal range of human Blood pH

A

7.35-7.45

195
Q

Weight of Blood in males and females

A

4-5 L in women, 5-6 in men.

196
Q

3 major groups of Plasma Proteins

A
  1. Albumin
  2. globulin
  3. fibrinogen
197
Q

Blood Serum

A

Blood plasma without the clotting factors.

198
Q

Albumin

A
  • Created in the liver,
  • most abundant
  • Binding protein for lipid transportation
199
Q

Globulins are made of and produce?

A
  • made of alpha, beta, and gamma types

- produced by plasma cells

199
Q

Fibrinogen

A
  • Least abundant plasma protein

Essential component in - blood clotting.

200
Q

RBC Life Span

A

About 120 days.

201
Q

Hemopoiesis

A

Red blood cell production / formation.

202
Q

Hemopoiesis before vs after Birth

A

Before: occurs in a number of tissues
After: red bone marrow

202
Q

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A
  • Hormone secreted by the live & kidney in response to low oxygen
  • stimulate the production of red blood cells by bone marrow.
203
Q

Erythrocyte

A

Red blood cells

204
Q

EPO Control

A

Reduced O2 carrying capacity is detected by the kidneys and they release EPO.

205
Q

Erythrocyte Function

A

Primary function is to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide by using haemoglobin.

206
Q

Haemoglobin increases

A

oxygen carrying capacity

207
Q

Sex-Dependent Haemoglobin Differences

A

Men: more cause of more testosterone which increases EPO production

208
Q

Haemoglobin and Blood Pressure

A

release nitric oxide to regulate blood pressure and blood flow.

209
Q

Erythrocyte End of Life

A

When they reach 120 days, erythrocytes are eaten by macrophages found in the bone marrow, liver, and spleen.

210
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells.

211
Q

Granular vs Agranualr Leukocytes

A

Granular Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.

Agranular: leukocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes

212
Q

Neutrophils

A

Rapid responders to sites of infection.

majority of leukocytes

213
Q

Eosinophils

A

contain antihistamine molecules and can also phagocytose for parasitic infections.

214
Q

Basophils

A

Intensify inflammatory response.

215
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Made up of Natural Killer Cells, B cells, and T cells.

216
Q

B Cells

A

Produce antibodies which bind to specific foreign components.

216
Q

T Cells

A

Provide cellular-level immunity by physically attacking foreign cells.

217
Q

Memory Cells

A

Form after exposure to a pathogen. Used for future rapid responses.

218
Q

Monocytes

A

Form macrophages when they leave the bloodstream

219
Q

White Blood Cell Elevation

A

Usually indicates an infection.

220
Q

Platelets

A

Cellular fragments used for blood clotting

220
Q

Megakaryocyte

A

Large platelet precursor cell found in the bone marrow. Breaks up to form platelets.

221
Q

Hemostasis

A

Stoppage of bleeding.

222
Q

Platelet Life Span

A

10 Days once activated.

223
Q

Three Steps of Hemostasis

A
  1. Vascular spasm
  2. formation of platelet plug
  3. coagulation.
224
Q

Vascular Spasm

A

When damaged, smooth muscle of a blood vessel will contract dramatically in order to slow blood flow.

225
Q

Platelet Plug

A

Platelets encountering area of vessel rupture clump together

226
Q

Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Coagulation Pathway

A

Extrinsic is shorter, faster, and uses less fibrin than intrinsic

227
Q

Lymphatic System

A

Composed of a network of vessels, ducts, nodes, and organs. Provides defense against infection as well as carrying fluids around the body.

228
Q

Main Functions of the Lymphatic System

A
  1. Drain Interstitial fluid
  2. immune response
  3. transport dietary fat
229
Q

Interstitial Fluid Drainage

A

Hydrostatic pressure causes leakage of fluid from capillaries, the lymphatic system drains it back into the blood.

230
Q

Dietary Fat Absorption

A

Lacteals can transport dietary lipids instead of blood vessels.

230
Q

Lymphatic Capillaries

A

terminal lymphatics, vessels where interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic system

231
Q

Chyle

A

Milky fluid found in the lymphatic system made up of proteins and dietary lipids

232
Q

Movement of Lymph

A
  • passively pumped.

- One-way semi-lunar valves prevent back flow

233
Q

Lymphatic Trunks

A

Larger lymphatic vessels draining into the lymphatic ducts

234
Q

Right Lymphatic duct

A

Receives lymph from the right upper part of the body

235
Q

Lymphatic Ducts

A

The largest lymphatic vessels, receiving lymph from all over the body and dumping it into the junction of the jugular and subclavian veins.

236
Q

Primary Lymphoid Organs

A

Red bone marrow and the thymus gland

237
Q

Red Bone Marrow

A

where B cells mature

238
Q

Thymus

A

Where T cells mature.

239
Q

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

A

Mechanisms which prevent T and B cells from attacking self-antigens and healthy body tissue.

239
Q

Secondary Lymphoid Organs (3)

A
  1. Lymph nodes
  2. spleen
  3. lymphatic nodules.
240
Q

Naive Lympocytes

A

Fully functional but not yet activated by antigen

241
Q

Afferent vs Efferent Lymphatic Vessels

A

Afferent: Vessels which bring lymph into a lymph node.
Efferent: vessels leaving lymph nodes

242
Q

Spleen

A

Largest singly mass of lymphatic tissue in the body.

243
Q

Two main components of the spleen

A

Red and white pulp

244
Q

Red Pulp

A

filters blood and stores platelets.

245
Q

White Pulp

A

mounts adaptive B and T cell responses in the body.

246
Q

Lymphoid Nodules

A

Dense cluster of lymphocytes without surrounding fibrous capsules

247
Q

Locations of Lymphoid Nodules

A

Respiratory and Digestive Tracts

248
Q

Immune Function Type

A

Innate and adaptive immune responses.

249
Q

Innate vs Adaptive Immune Response

A

Innate: Non-specific & fast
Adaptive: specific & slow

250
Q

2 Types of Innate Immune Responses

A
  1. Barrier defence

2. Internal defence

251
Q

Barrier Defence

A

prevents pathogens from entering the body

252
Q

Internal Innate Mechanisms

A

Destroys pathogens after they enter

253
Q

Antimicrobial Substances

A

Discourage microbial growth

254
Q

Interferons

A

attack virus infected cells by releasing antiviral proteins

255
Q

Iron-binding Proteins

A

Reduce available iron

256
Q

Complement Proteins

A

Augment immune responses.

257
Q

Granzymes

A

Enzymes that attack proteins of target cells following perforin activity.

258
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Cell eating.

259
Q

Inflammation Response

A

Brings in phagocytic cells to the damaged area to clear debris.

260
Q

Vasodilation

A

Increases blood flow to area which leads to redness and heat.

261
Q

Cytokines

A

Chemicals released by the immune system communicate with the brain.

262
Q

Helper T Cells

A

Activate cytotoxic T cells and B cells immune responses.

263
Q

Antigens of the Pathogen

A

Trigger for adaptive immune responses.

264
Q

Cytotoxic T-Cell

A

A type of lymphocyte that, when activated, kills infected cells. Stimulated by the active T-Cell.

265
Q

Memory Cells

A

responsible for immunological memory and protective immunity.

266
Q

Acquiring Immunity

A

naturally or artificially.

267
Q

Active Process

A

All cells working together to mount a response and generating memory cells.

268
Q

Passive Response

A

acquiring high levels of antibodies without the body producing them.

269
Q

Naturally Acquired Active Immunity

A

Someone gets sick and recovers from infection and has long-lasting B and T memory cells.

270
Q

Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity

A

Antibodies are passed from mother to fetus via the placenta and breast milk.

271
Q

Artificially Acquired Active Immunity

A

Antibodies are made due to exposure to a vaccine.

272
Q

Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity

A

A person getting a direct injection of antibodies which provides a quick and short-lived level of protection. i.e., anti-venom.

273
Q

Artery vs Vein

A

Artery: takes blood away from the heart.
Vein: brings blood tot he heart

274
Q

Arterioles

A

Small vessels that receive blood from the arteries.

275
Q

Capillaries

A

Microscopic vessel through which exchanges take place between the blood and cells of the body.

275
Q

Venules

A

Small vessels that gather blood from the capillaries into the veins.

276
Q

Artery Properties

A

Thicker walls, smaller lumen, have to take greater pressures.

277
Q

Vein Properties

A

Thinner walls, reduced pressure, larger lumen.

278
Q

Blood Vessel Layers

A

Tunica interna (intima), tunica media, tunica externa.

279
Q

Tunica Intima

A

The innermost layer of a blood vessel

280
Q

Tunica Media

A

The middle and thickest layer of tissue of a blood vessel wall, composed of elastic tissue and smooth muscle cells

281
Q

Tunica Externa

A

Outer layer of a blood vessel which connects it to surrounding tissues, holding it in position.

282
Q

Elastic Arteries

A

Closer to the heart; allow stretch as blood is pumped into them and recoil when ventricles relax.

283
Q

There is no pressure gradient during…

A

The resting state.

284
Q

The Great Veins

A

Superior and inferior vena cava

285
Q

Great Arteries

A

Pulmonary trunk and aorta.

286
Q

Two Distinct CV Circuits

A

Pulmonary and Systemic.

287
Q

Pulmonary Circuit

A

Carries blood to the lungs for gas exchange and returns it to the heart.

288
Q

Systemic Circuit

A

carries oxygenated blood to the tissues and deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

289
Q

Autorhythmicity

A

The ability of cardiac muscle to initiate its own electrical potential at a fixed rate.

290
Q

Myocardial Contractile Cells

A

Cells which conduct impulses and are responsible for contraction of the heart muscle.

291
Q

Myocardial Conducting Cells

A

initiate and propagate autorhythmic impulses which travel through the heart.

292
Q

Sinoatrial (SA) Node

A

initiates the electrical impulses that determine the heart rate; often termed the pacemaker for the heart.

293
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) node

A

creates a critical pause in the electrical impulse pathway.

294
Q

AV Node Delay

A

Forces the impulse to slow down by about 100ms as it passes through the AV node, allowing the atria to complete contraction and fill the ventricles with 20% more blood.

295
Q

Purkinje Fibres

A

Muscle fibres that conduct impulses in the walls of the ventricles from the AV bundle branches.

296
Q

Stimulation Frequency (fast to slowest)

A 
SA node
AV node
AV bundle
AV bundle branches
Purkinje
297
Q

Cardiac Refractory Period

A

Allows time for ventricular filling and adequate force production

298
Q

Absolute Refractory Period

A

The minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin. About 200ms.

299
Q

Relative Refractory Period

A

period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarized state and will fire again only if the incoming message is much stronger than usual. About 50-250 ms.

300
Q

Systole

A

Contraction

301
Q

Diastole

A

Relaxation

302
Q

EKG Waveforms

A

P wave, QRS complex, T wave.

303
Q

P Wave

A

atrial depolarization.

304
Q

QRS Complex

A

ventricular depolarisation.

305
Q

T Wave

A

ventricular repolarization.

306
Q

Cardiac Cycle- Mechanical events

A
  1. Late diastole
  2. Atrial systole
  3. Isovolumetric ventricular contractions
  4. Ventricular depolarization
  5. Isovolumetric relaxation
307
Q

Isovolumetric Contraction

A

ventricles contract while not ejecting any blood, meaning the blood volume stays constant.

308
Q

Ventricular Ejection Phase

A

Pressures are greater than arterial pressure. Left ventricle creates more pressure.

309
Q

End Diastolic Volume (EDV)

A

Volume of blood in each ventricle at end of ventricular diastole

310
Q

End Systolic Volume (ESV)

A

Volume of blood remaining in each ventricle after systole

311
Q

Stroke Volume

A

The amount of blood ejected from the heart in one contraction

312
Q

Heart Sounds

A

Lub-Dub.

313
Q

Lub

A

closing of the AV valves during early systole.

314
Q

Dub

A

closing of the semilunar valves during early diastole.

315
Q

Dicrotic Notch

A

The interruption of smooth flow due to the brief backflow of blood Leads to a spike in BP.

316
Q

Blood Pressure

A

The force exerted by the blood upon the walls of the blood vessels or the chambers of the heart.

317
Q

Pulse Pressure

A

The difference between systolic and diastolic BP

318
Q

Mean Arterial Pressure

A

“Average” blood pressure in the arteries.

319
Q

Normal BP

A

120/80.

320
Q

Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Variables

A
  • Cardiac Output
  • Compliance
  • Blood Volume
  • Blood Viscosity
  • Vessel length and diameter.
321
Q

Compliance

A

Ability of a vessel to expand to accommodate increased content

322
Q

Compliance and BP

A

Decreased compliance (hypertension) increases resistance and BP.

323
Q

Vessel Diameter and Blood Pressure

A

Increased diameter leads to decreased blood pressure

324
Q

Respiratory Pump Inhalation vs Exhalation

A

Inhilation: volume of thorax increases, intrathoracic pressure decreases, increases BP

325
Q

Blood Flow Redirection

A

In order to maintain homeostasis, different parts of the body have higher or lower blood needs, meaning blood moves to where there is a higher demand.

326
Q

Decreased BP and Baroreceptors

A
  • decrease firing rate
  • sympathetic reflexes
  • accelerating HR
327
Q

Increased BP and Baroreceptors

A
  • increase firing rate
  • parasympathetic reflexes
  • decelerating HR
328
Q

Chemoreceptors and Blood Pressure

A

Chemoreceptors sense O2, CO2, and H+ concentrations in the blood.

329
Q

Chemoreceptors and the Cardiac Cycle

A

Chemoreceptors sends messages to the CV and respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata.

330
Q

Neurological Control of BP

A
  • Can decrease cardiac function
  • augment cardiac function
  • control contractions of smooth muscle in tunica media.
331
Q

Endocrine Control of BP

A

Mostly done through catecholamines and blood volume-regulating hormones.

332
Q

Catecholamines

A

“Fight-or-flight” epinephrine and norepinephrine

333
Q

ANH and BP

A

Atrial natriuretic hormone is antagonistic to ADH and angiotension II. Promotes water loss and vasodilation (through inhibition of angiotensin II). Suppresses renin, aldosterone, and ADH.

334
Q

Autoregulation mechanism

A

self regulatory mechanism

335
Q

Bayliss Effect

A

Intrinsic property of smooth muscle that allows them to respond to changes in mechanical load.

336
Q

Short Term BP Control

A
  • Baroreceptors

- Cardiovascular system

337
Q

Long term BP Control

A

Renal/Blood volumes

338
Q

Very Short Term BP Control

A

Autoregulation mechanisms

339
Q

The Valasalva Maneuver

A

Forced expiration against a closed glottis increases intrathoracic pressure

340
Q

Valsalva Phase I

A

increase BP & HR decreases.

341
Q

Valsalva Phase II

A

BP recovery & HR increases.

342
Q

Valsalva Phase III

A

BP decreased & HR Increased

343
Q

Valsalva Phase IV

A

BP overshoots & HR decreases.

344
Q

Tachycardia vs Bradycardia

A

Tachy: Rapid HR, over 100 bpm.
Brady: Slow HR, under 60

345
Q

Respiration

A

Exchange of gases between the atmosphere, blood, and cells

346
Q

3 Respiration Processes

A
  1. Ventilation (breathing)
  2. External (pulmonary)
  3. internal (tissue)
347
Q

Conducting Zone

A

organs and structures not directly involved in gas exchange.

348
Q

Respiratory Zone

A

Location of gas exchange

349
Q

Conducting Zone Functions

A
  • Provide a route for moving air
  • remove debris and pathogens
  • warm and humidify the air.
350
Q

Trachea

A

Provides structural support.

351
Q

Bronchi

A

traps debris and pathogens.

352
Q

Respiratory Zone Portions

A
  • respiratory bronchiole - which leads to the alveolar duct

- alveolar sac

353
Q

Bronchoconstriction

A

Parasympathetic: constriction of the bronchioles.

354
Q

Bronchodilation

A

Sympathetic: dilation of the bronchioles

355
Q

Alveolus

A

increase surface area for gas exchange.

356
Q

Type I Alveolar Cells

A
  • Highly permeable to gases

- Where gas exchange occurs.

357
Q

Type II Alveolar Cells

A
  • Secrete pulmonary surfactant

- reduces surface tension.

358
Q

Simple Squamous Epithelium

A

gas to exchange via simple diffusion.

359
Q

Pulmonary Arteries

A

Arising from the pulmonary trunk, carry deoxygenated blood to the alveoli

360
Q

Pulmonary Capillary Network

A

Pulmonary arteries become this as they reach the alveoli

361
Q

Respiratory Membrane

A

Capillary wall meets the alveolar wall, allowing gas exchange to occur.

362
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

P1V1 = P2V2 If volume increases, pressure decreases.

363
Q

Intra-Alveolar Pressure

A

Pressure of the air within the alveoli, changes with phases of breathing.

364
Q

Intrapleural Pressure

A

Pressure of the air within the pleural cavity, Changes with phases of breathing.

365
Q

Competing Forces in the Thorax

A
  • Elasticity

- Alveolar fluid surface tension

366
Q

Pleural Cavity Surface Tension

A

Force pulling the lungs outwards

367
Q

Expiration Types (4)

A
  • Quiet
  • diaphragmatic
  • costal
  • forced
368
Q

Quiet Breathing

A

occurs at rest and it automatic

369
Q

Diaphragmatic Breathing

A

Deep breathing

370
Q

Costal Breathing

A

Shallow breathing

371
Q

Forced Breathing

A

Vigorous breathing

372
Q

Tidal Volume

A

Amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs during quiet breathing. About 500ml.

373
Q

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

A

extra volume that can be brought into the lungs

374
Q

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

A

Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation.

375
Q

Functional Reserve Capacity (FRC)

A

The amount of air that remains in the lungs after a normal tidal expiration

376
Q

Anatomical Dead Space

A

air that is present in the airway that never reaches the alveoli to participate in gas exchange

377
Q

Alveolar (Physiological) Dead Space

A

Air found in alveoli that cannot function. Those affected by disease or abnormal blood flow.

378
Q

Respiratory Rate Control

A

changes in blood CO2, O2, and pH levels

379
Q

Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)

A

stimulating the diaphragm and interconstal muscles, causing inspiration.

380
Q

Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)

A

stimulates the accessory muscles of the thorax and abdomen, leading to both forced inspiration and expiration.

381
Q

Dalton’s Law

A

Total pressure is sum of all partial pressures

382
Q

Henry’s Law

A

Behaviour of gases in contact with a liquid.

383
Q

Atmospheric and Alveolar Air

A

Differ in absolute concentration. Alveolar air has more CO2, less O2 and more H2O.

384
Q

Other Gas Exchange Factors

A
  • Diffusion distance

- available surface area.

385
Q

Perfusion

A

Flow of blood into the pulmonary capillaries.

386
Q

Sites of Gas Exchange

A
  • Lungs (external respiration)

- tissues (internal respiration)

KNES 323 (2 decks)

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