3.2.2 All Cells Arise from other Cells

Question 1

(Cells Arise Cells) State what the cell cycle is and outline its stages.

Answer 1

Cycle of division with intermediate growth periods.

1) Interphase
2) Mitosis / meiosis (nuclear division)
3) Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)

Question 2

(Cells Arise Cells) Explain why the cell cycle does not occur in some cells.

Answer 2

After differentiation, some types of cell in multicellular organisms (e.g. neurons) no longer have the ability to divide.

Question 3

(Cells Arise Cells) What is the difference between the cell cycle and mitosis?

Answer 3

Cell cycle includes growth period between division; mitosis is only 10% of the cycle & refers only to nuclear division.

Question 4

(Cells Arise Cells) Outline what happens during interphase.

Answer 4

G1: cell synthesises proteins for replications

S: DNA replicates = chromosomes consist of 2 sister chromatids joined at a centromere

G2: organelles divide

Question 5

(Cells Arise Cells) State the purpose of mitosis. Include information about its products.

Answer 5

Produces 2 genetically identical daughter cells for:
- Growth
- Cell replacement/tissue repair
- Asexual reproduction

Question 6

(Cells Arise Cells) Name the stages of mitosis.

Answer 6

1) Prophase
2) Metaphase
3) Anaphase
4) Telophase

Question 7

(Cells Arise Cells) Outline what happens during prophase. (3)

Answer 7

1) Chromosomes condense, becoming visible (X-shaped: 2 sister chromatids joined at centromere).
2) Centrioles move to opposite poles of cell (animal cells) & mitotic spindle fibres form.
3) Nuclear envelope & nucleolus break down = chromosomes free in cytoplasm.

Question 8

(Cells Arise Cells) Outline what happens during metaphase.

Answer 8

Sister chromatids line up at cell equator, attached to the mitotic spindle by their centromeres.

Question 9

(Cells Arise Cells) Outline what happens during anaphase and what is requires. (2)

Answer 9

Requires energy from ATP hydrolysis.

1) Spindle fibres contract = centromeres divide.
2) Sister chromatids separate into 2 distinct chromosomes & are puled to opposite poles of cell (looks like ‘V’ shapes facing each other).

Question 10

(Cells Arise Cells) Outline what happens during telophase. (2)

Answer 10

1) Chromosomes decondense, becoming invisible again.
2) New nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosome = 2 new nuclei, each with 1 copy of each chromosome.

Question 11

(Cells Arise Cells) Explain the procedure for a root tip squash experiment. (3)

Answer 11

1) Prepare a temporary mount of root tissue.
2) Focus a optical microscope on the slide. Count total number of cells in the field of view and number of cells in a stage of mitosis
3) Calculate mitotic index (proportion of cells undergoing mitosis).

Question 12

(Cells Arise Cells) Outline how to prepare a temporary mount of root tissue. (4)

Answer 12

1) Place root in hydrochloric acid to halt cell division & hydrolyse middle lamella.
2) Stain root tip with a dye that binds to chromosomes.
3) Macerate tissue in water using mounted needle.
4) Use mounted needle at 45°C to press down coverslip & obtain a single layer of cells. Avoid trapping air bubbles.

Question 13

(Cells Arise Cells) Name 2 dyes that bind to chromosomes.

Answer 13

• Toluidine blue (blue)
• Acetic orcein (purple-red)

Question 14

(Cells Arise Cells) Why is only the root tip used when calculating a mitotic index?

Answer 14

• Meristematic cells at root tip are actively undergoing mitosis.
• Cell further from root tip are elongating rather than dividing.

Question 15

(Cells Arise Cells) What are tumour suppressor genes & proto-oncogenes?

Answer 15

Genes that code for proteins to trigger apoptosis (programmed death of damaged cells)/slow cell cycle (e.g. p53 acts between G1 & S in interphase so damaged DNA cannot replicate).

Question 16

(Cells Arise Cells) What are proto-oncogenes?

Answer 16

Genes that code for proteins to stimulate cell cycle to progress from one stage to the next.

Question 17

(Cells Arise Cells) How can mutation to tumour suppressor gene & proto-oncogenes cause cancer?

Answer 17

• Tumour suppressor: no production of a protein needed to slow the cell cycle.
• Proto-oncogenes: form permanently-activated oncogenes.
• Disruption to the cell cycle → uncontrolled cell division → tumour.

Question 18

(Cells Arise Cells) Suggest how cancer treatments control the rate of cell division. What can they also damage?

Answer 18

Disrupt the cell cycle:
- Prevent DNA replication
- Disrupt spindle formation = inhibit metaphase/anaphase
NB: can also damage healthy cells.

Question 19

(Cells Arise Cells) Name the process regarding how do prokaryotic cells replicate?

Answer 19

Binary fission

Question 20

(Cells Arise Cells) Detail binary fission. (4)

Answer 20

1) DNA loop replicates. Both copies stay attached to cell membrane. Plasmids replicate in cytoplasm.
2) Cell elongates, separating the 2 DNA loops.
3) Cell membrane contracts & septum forms.
4) Cell splits into 2 identical progeny cells, each with 1 copy of the DNA loop but a variable number of plasmids.

Question 21

(Cells Arise Cells) Why are viruses classified as non-living?

Answer 21

They are acellular: no cytoplasm, no metabolism & cannot self-replicate.

Question 22

(Cells Arise Cells) Outline how viruses replicate. (4)

Answer 22

1) Attachment proteins attach to receptors on host cell membrane.
2) Enveloped viruses fuse with cell membrane or move in via endocytosis & release DNA/RNA into cytoplasm OR viruses inject DNA/RNA.
3) Host cell uses viral genetic information to synthesise new viral proteins/nucleic acid.
4) Components of new viral particle assemble.

Question 23

(Cells Arise Cells) How do new viral particles leave the host cell? (2)

Answer 23

1) Bud off & use cell membrane to form envelope.
2) Cause lysis of host cell.

Question 24

(Cells Arise Cells) Why is it so difficult to develop effective treatments against viruses?

Answer 24

Replicate inside living cells = difficult to kill them without killing host cells.