3.1.1 Water and Carbon Cycles Flashcards

1
Q

how are models useful to a geographer?

A

-very visual
-simplify a complex world
-provide a starting point
-helps to predict and describe a possible sequence/consequence
-shows interrelated components

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2
Q

what are the inputs of the water cycle?

A

-precipitation
-autumn leaf fall
-seeds carried by wind & birds

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3
Q

what are the outputs of the water cycle?

A

-plants
-evaporation
-seed dispersal

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4
Q

what are the stores/components of the water cycle?

A

-water
-soil
-water soaking through the soil/rocks

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5
Q

what are the flows/transfers of the water cycle?

A

-photosynthesis
-infiltration
-transpiration

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6
Q

what do systems compromise of?

A

any set of interrelated components to form a working unit

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7
Q

what does a relationship mean in comparison to an interrelationship?

A

relationship means one way whereas an interrelationship means both ways

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8
Q

what are the different geological systems?

A

-hydrological cycle
-carbon cycle
-ecosystems
-oceanic circulation
-atmospheric circulation

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9
Q

what’s another name for the hydrological cycle?

A

water cycle

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10
Q

what is an ecosystem?

A

a system that models relationships and interactions between the various biotic and abiotic components making up a community of organisms and their surrounding physical environment

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11
Q

what’s an example of an ecosystem?

A

Sahara Desert

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12
Q

what’s an example of a biome?

A

all the hot deserts in the world

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13
Q

what are the four main biomes?

A

-hot desert
-cold desert
-temperate forest
-rainforest

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14
Q

what does desert mean?

A

lacks rain (dry)

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15
Q

what is a system?

A

an assemblage of interrelated parts that work together by way of some driving process

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16
Q

what are some common characteristics that most systems share?

A
  1. systems have a structure that is defined by its parts and processes
  2. systems are generalisations of reality
  3. systems tend to function in the same way- this involves the inputs and outputs of material
  4. the various parts of a system have functional as well as structural relationships between each other
    5.flow and transfer of some type of energy and/or matter
  5. systems often exchange energy and/or matter beyond their defined boundary with the outside environment
  6. functional relationships can only occur through various input and output processes
  7. the parts that make up a system show some degree of integration
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17
Q

within the boundary of a system what three properties can we find?

A

-elements
-attributes
-relationships

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18
Q

what are elements?

A

the kinds of parts that make up a system

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19
Q

what are attributes?

A

characteristics of the elements that may be perceived and measured

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20
Q

what are the relationships in a system?

A

the associations that occur between elements and attributes

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21
Q

what are the types of system?

A

-closed
-open
-isolated
-morphological
-cascading
-process response
-control
-ecosystem

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22
Q

what is a closed system?

A

system that transfers energy but not matter across its boundary to the surrounding environment

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23
Q

what is an open system?

A

system that transfers both energy and matter across its boundary to the surrounding environment

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24
Q

what is an isolated system?

A

a system that has no interactions beyond its boundary layer

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25
Q

what is a morphological system?

A

this is a system where we understand relationships between elements and their attributes in a vague sense based only on measured features and correlations

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26
Q

what is a cascading system?

A

when a change in one area of a system causes a change in another and another and another and another

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27
Q

what is a process-response system?

A

a system that integrates the characteristics of both morphological and cascading systems

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28
Q

what is a control system?

A

a system that can be intelligently manipulated by the action of humans

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29
Q

what systems are the carbon and water cycle?

A

they are both cascading systems but not control systems

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30
Q

what is positive feedback?

A

where a change causes a further effect accelerating the original change

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31
Q

what is negative feedback?

A

system acts by lessening the effect of the original change and ultimately reverses it

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32
Q

what is a positive feedback loop that increases global warming?

A
  1. temperatures warm
  2. sea ice melts and shrinks
  3. dark ocean waters absorb more solar radiation
  4. temperatures warm further
  5. sea ice melts more
  6. temperatures warm further still
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33
Q

what is a negative feedback loop that decreases global warming?

A
  1. surface temperature increases
  2. increased evaporation from oceans
  3. increased low cloud in atmosphere
  4. increased earths albedo
  5. decreased surface temperature (slightly)
  6. decreased evaporation from oceans
  7. decreased low clouds in atmosphere
  8. earths albedo decreases
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34
Q

what percentage of earths total global water is freshwater?

A

2.5%

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35
Q

what percentage of earths total global water is oceans?

A

96.5%

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36
Q

what percentage of earths freshwater is found in the ground?

A

30.1%

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37
Q

what percentage of earths freshwater is found in glaciers and icecaps?

A

68.7%

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38
Q

what percentage of earths freshwater is found on the surface?

A

1.2%

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39
Q

what percentage of earths surface water is in the atmosphere?

A

3.0%

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40
Q

what percentage of earths surface water is in living things?

A

0.26%

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41
Q

what percentage of earths surface water is in soil moisture?

A

3.8%

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42
Q

what percentage of earths surface water is in lakes?

A

20.9%

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43
Q

what percentage of earths surface water is in ground ice and permafrost?

A

69.0%

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44
Q

what type of water is most of the earths water?

A

salt water

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45
Q

is most of the earths water being salt water useful? why?

A

no, it’s useless because if you drink it you go mad, it clogs up machines and cannot be used to water crops as it kills plants

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46
Q

why does the ocean have differential areas of saltiness?

A

due to the amount of dissolvable rocks present and the flow of ice/glaciers into the sea which aren’t salty

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47
Q

how have Americans considered solving the California water shortage?

A

by iceberg harvesting

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48
Q

how far above ground is the water table in Wokingham?

A

about 20m above ground

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49
Q

how much of earths water is available for human use?

A

only three-tenths of a percent which is all we’ll ever have

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50
Q

where is 90% of the water that is locked in ice and glaciers found?

A

antarctica

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51
Q

how much of our water is used for growing food?

A

two thirds of our water

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52
Q

how much of the water we use on earth is used in industry?

A

80%

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53
Q

how much water does it take to produce one pound of beef?

A

1,837 gallons of water

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54
Q

how much water does it take to produce one cup of coffee?

A

37 gallons of water

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55
Q

how much of indoor water use is used for flushing the toilet in the US?

A

26%

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56
Q

how much of indoor water use is used for washing clothes in the US?

A

22%

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57
Q

how much of indoor water use is used for showering and bathing in the US?

A

19%

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58
Q

how much water do americans use on average per day?

A

100 gallons of water

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59
Q

how much water do millions of the worlds poorest persist on per day?

A

fewer than 5 gallons of water

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60
Q

how many people lack access to clean, safe water supply?

A

one billion people

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61
Q

by 2025 how many people will live where water is scarce?

A

1.8 billion people

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62
Q

how will water scarcity and global warming cause problems for the uk in the future?

A

due to global warming water will get more scarce so large amounts of people will migrate to countries that do not have a scarcity of water- e.g. the UK

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63
Q

how many swimming pools are there in the US?

A

8.8 million

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64
Q

how much of the human body is water?

A

66% of the human body is water

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65
Q

what is an aquifer?

A

a body of saturated rock through which water can easily move

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66
Q

what must happen in order for a well to be productive?

A

it must be drilled into an aquifer

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67
Q

why are rocks such as granite and schist generally poor aquifers?

A

they have a very low porosity

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68
Q

what is a well?

A

a hole drilled into the ground to penetrate an aquifer

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69
Q

there are a lot of aquifers underneath the amazon rainforest- is this helpful?

A

no because the water’s not being used as nobody lives there

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70
Q

why is it a good thing that there are aquifers under the sahara desert?

A

it means the water can be used for farming in the future

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71
Q

where is indonesias population ranked globally?

A

indonesia has the 4th largest population

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72
Q

what does it mean that areas have physical water scarcity?

A

they have a lack of water

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73
Q

what does it mean that areas have economic water scarcity?

A

they can’t afford to exploit water

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74
Q

what is an example of a continent that has low physical water scarcity but high economic water scarcity?

A

Africa

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75
Q

when countries are on a map and have no data collected- what are the reasons why that may happen?

A

-the country is at war
-there is no point as there’s a very small population
-there’s high levels of poverty so it’s not possible

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76
Q

what are the different ways that water is found in around the world?

A

-oceanic water
-cryospheric water
-terrestrial water
-atmospheric water

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77
Q

how much oceanic water is there?

A

-1,370,000,000 km³ with an average depth of 3,862m
-covers approximately 72% of the planets surface

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78
Q

in what forms are oceanic water?

A

divided into principal oceans and smaller seas

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79
Q

what are the key issues/changes with oceanic water?

A

-the pH has fallen from about 8.25 in the last 250 years
-this change in pH is linked to the increase in atmospheric carbon and may have a profound influence on marine ecosystems
-it’s mostly salt water

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80
Q

how much cryospheric water is there?

A

-glacial land ice extends more than 50,000 km²
-greenland ice sheet extends about 1.7 million km²

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81
Q

in what forms is cryospheric water?

A

-the portions of the earths surface where water is in solid form
-sea ice
-ice sheets
-alpine glaciers
-ice caps
-permafrost

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82
Q

what are the key issues/changes of cryospheric water?

A

-ice sheets form in areas where snow that falls in winter does not melt entirely over the summer- causing layers of snow to pile up into thick masses of ice
-if greenland ice sheet melted the sea level would rise about six metres
-if the antarctic ice sheet melted, sea level would rise by 60m

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83
Q

how much terrestrial water is there?

A

-rivers make up only a small percentage of all water, covering just 1,000,000 km² with a volume of 2,120km³

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84
Q

in what forms is terrestrial water?

A

-surface water
-ground water
-soil water
-biological water

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85
Q

what are the key issues/changes of terrestrial water?

A

there is not much of this water

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86
Q

in what forms is atmospheric water?

A

-exists in all three states
-the most common is gas: water vapour

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87
Q

what are the key issues/changes of atmospheric water?

A

can not be used as it’s hard to collect

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88
Q

the oceans are the main store of saline water. can you account for the ‘other saline water’ stores?

A

saline aquifers and mangrove swamps

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89
Q

what are saline aquifers?

A

they exist where seawater has infiltrated into the rocks, often due to over abstraction

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90
Q

many of the worlds glaciers are melting, where do you think this freshwater is going?

A

ocean store (meaning it’s now saltwater)

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91
Q

why is ‘groundwater’ a more important fresh water source than ‘glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets’?

A

it’s not frozen, in more convenient locations, it’s held as ice

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92
Q

why do you think the atmosphere stores such a small amount of the worlds water?

A

water cycles quickly in and out of the atmosphere- the atmosphere can’t store it very effectively

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93
Q

what happens once aquifers under deserts have been used?

A

they won’t refill for a long time as there’s little rain, this means they could be infiltrated by seawater when they are empty

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94
Q

what is the availability of fresh, clean water affected by?

A

climate change, overuse and contamination

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95
Q

what are the four main stores of the water cycle?

A

-lithosphere (land)
-hydrosphere (liquid water)
-cryosphere (frozen water)
-atmosphere (air)

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96
Q

what is the cryosphere?

A

it contains the frozen parts of the earth

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97
Q

what does the cryosphere include?

A

-snow
-ice on land
-ice caps
-glaciers
-permafrost
-sea ice

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98
Q

describe the main positive feedback mechanism present in the cryosphere

A

melting reduces ice coverage, decreasing albedo, leading to more absorption of solar energy and further warming

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99
Q

describe the main negative feedback mechanism present in the cryosphere

A

increased snowfall in some areas due to warmer air holding more moisture can offset ice loss temporarily

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100
Q

what are ice caps?

A

when snow accumulates and compresses into ice, feeding the glaciers

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101
Q

what are glaciers?

A

frozen rivers move downhill due to gravity and weight

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102
Q

what is snow?

A

it covers mountains in ice sheets, playing a big role in reflecting solar energy

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103
Q

what is permafrost?

A

permanently frozen soil underground, thawing this could release greenhouse gases like methane

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104
Q

what are icebergs?

A

ice that has broken off from glaciers or ice-shelves

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105
Q

what is an ice shelf?

A

an extended piece of ice from a land based ice sheet

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106
Q

what is an ice sheet?

A

massive layers of ice covering land, such as Antarctica or Greenland

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107
Q

describe the composition of the earths atmosphere

A

-78% nitrogen
-21% oxygen
-0.9% argon
-the remaining gases, such as water vapour and CO2 are found in smaller quantities

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108
Q

what are the different layers of the earths atmosphere?

A

-troposphere
-stratosphere
-mesosphere
-thermosphere
-exosphere

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109
Q

describe the troposphere

A

-lowest level of the atmosphere, from the surface of the earth up to 9-17km
-densest atmospheric layer because of the weight of the layers above it
-contains 99% of all water vapour

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110
Q

describe the stratosphere

A

-extends up to 50-55km
-much warmer than the troposphere
-contains the ozone layer which absorbs radiation from the sun, protecting the surface
-not much weather occurs here

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111
Q

describe the mesosphere

A

-extends up to 80-85km
-reaches temperatures as low as -100 degrees
-water vapour is scarce but noctilucent clouds can form ice crystals

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112
Q

describe the thermosphere

A

-extends up to 500-1000km
-where the atmosphere begins to break down
-temperature rises as altitude increases; however, the air is so thin that although particles may have energy equivalent to a heat of 1500 degrees, it wouldn’t feel hot to touch

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113
Q

describe the exosphere

A

no well define upper limit as it merges with space where gases can escape earths gravity

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114
Q

what is the atmosphere?

A

a complex system of gases that surrounds the planet and is held in place by gravity

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115
Q

what are the functions of the atmosphere?

A

-life support
-temperature regulation
-UV protection
-weather and climate
-shield from space debris

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116
Q

how does the atmosphere support life?

A

it supplies oxygen for breathing and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis

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117
Q

how does the atmosphere regulate temperature?

A

acts as an insulating blanket, maintaining a habitable climate through the greenhouse effect

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118
Q

how does the atmosphere provide UV protection?

A

the ozone layer shields life from harmful ultraviolet radiation

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119
Q

how does the atmosphere impact weather and climate?

A

drives global weather systems and patterns through interactions between air, water and sunlight

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120
Q

how does the atmosphere shield from space debris?

A

burns up meteoroids before they reach the surface

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121
Q

what is the lithosphere?

A

the rocky outer part of the earth, it is made up of the brittle crust and the top part of the upper mantle- it is the coolest and most rigid part of the earth

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122
Q

what are the characteristics of the lithosphere?

A

-the rocks in the lithosphere are considered elastic and they are not viscous
-the asthenosphere is viscous and the lithosphere asthenosphere boundary is the point where geologists mark the difference in ductility between the two layers of the upper mantle
-the lithosphere is far less ductile than the asthenosphere

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123
Q

what are the types of lithosphere?

A

-oceanic lithosphere (associated with oceanic crust)
-continental lithosphere (less dense than the oceanic lithosphere)

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124
Q

what tectonic plates make up the lithosphere?

A

North American, Caribbean, South American, Scotia, Antarctic, Eurasian, Arabian, African, Indian, Philippine, Australian, Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos and Nazca

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125
Q

what is the movement of tectonic plates possible by?

A

the thermal energy from the mantle part of the lithosphere

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126
Q

how does thermal energy impact the rocks of the lithosphere?

A

thermal energy makes the rocks more elastic

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127
Q

how does the lithosphere interact with other sphere?

A

-enormous, hard rocks of the lithosphere may be ground down to powder by the powerful movement of a glacier (cryosphere)
-weathering and erosion caused by wind (atmosphere) or rain (hydrosphere may also wear down rocks in the lithosphere

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128
Q

what are the functions of the biosphere?

A

-support life
-nutrient cycling
-climate regulation
-habitats and biodiversity

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129
Q

how does the biosphere support life?

A

the biosphere provides the necessary conditions for all living organisms to survive

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130
Q

how does the biosphere cycle nutrients?

A

it supports the circulation of essential nutrients through ecosystems

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131
Q

how does the biosphere regulate climate?

A

through processes like photosynthesis, respiration and water cycles

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132
Q

how does the biosphere provide habitats and biodiversity?

A

it offers countless habitats for a vast variety of plant, animal, and microorganism species, promoting biodiversity

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133
Q

why is protecting the biosphere important?

A

the biosphere is crucial for sustaining life, ensuring ecosystem balance, and maintaining the overall health of out planet

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134
Q

what is the biosphere?

A

the main part of the earth where all organisms live

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135
Q

what is the hydrosphere?

A

the total amount of water on a planet, this includes water that is on the surface of the planet, underground and in the air

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136
Q

how does liquid water exist on the surface of the earth?

A

in the form of oceans, lakes and rivers

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137
Q

how does liquid water exist below the ground of the earth?

A

as groundwater in wells and aquifers

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138
Q

when is water vapour most visible?

A

when its as clouds and fog

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139
Q

what is the frozen part of the hydrosphere made of?

A

ice: glaciers, ice caps and iceburgs

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140
Q

what is the name given to the frozen part of the hydrosphere?

A

the cryosphere

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141
Q

how does water move through the hydrosphere?

A

In the water cycle; hot air rises as water vapour condenses into a solid or liquid form, they create droplets that precipitate back onto the earths surface as rain or snow, precipitation that falls onto land flows into rivers, streams or lakes, and some of it seeps into the soil where it is held underground as groundwater. When warmed by the sun, water on the surface of oceans and freshwater bodies evaporates, forming a vapour. This then rises into the atmosphere again and the cycle repeates.

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142
Q

what are some inputs into the hydrosphere?

A

precipiation

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143
Q

what are some stores in the hydrosphere?

A

-surface water
-groundwater
-oceans
-clouds
-biomass

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144
Q

what are some outputs to the hydrosphere?

A

-plants
-evaporation
-biomass

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145
Q

what is sublimation?

A

solid to gas

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146
Q

what is deposition?

A

gas to solid

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147
Q

how was antarctica formed?

A

due to deposition, as the air (saturated with water vapour) hits the cold ground it freezes immediately

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148
Q

define pressure

A

the weight of air on the earths surface

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149
Q

what is the global average atmospheric pressure?

A

1 bar or 1000 millibars

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150
Q

why can the atmosphere not sustain large changes in pressure gradients?

A

because the atmosphere is a gas it cannot sustain large changes in pressure gradients

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151
Q

why does air get colder as it rises?

A

this is because it gets less dense as it rises so it doesn’t trap heat- less insulation

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152
Q

what is the environmental temperature?

A

the temperature at any particular height in the atmosphere

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153
Q

why are tropical rainforests on the equator not hotter than deserts on cancer and capricorn?

A

they are cooler because the process of creating rain takes up heat energy and due to cold air falling it has a cooling effect on the ground

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154
Q

what does high pressure mean?

A

no space for hot air particles to rise, particles fall and heat up, becomes dry air = deserts

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155
Q

what does low pressure mean?

A

space for hot air particles to rise = rain

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156
Q

describe the atmospheric circulation model

A
  1. suns rays are more concentrated at the equator therefore making it warmer (it only has to heat a small area and the suns rays also have to pass through less atmosphere)
  2. hot air rises off the equator, this creates low pressure and therefore rain
  3. as the air rises it gets colder and small- the water gets squeezed out of it forming condensation nuclei in the atmosphere (the air contracts, causing water vapour to cool and condense), this starts to form clouds at dew point
  4. falling air- warms up- expands- no rain = hot deserts
    5.temperate regions- same as equation but less hot
  5. regions- higher pressure- no rain = cold deserts
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157
Q

what does the atmospheric circulation model look like?

A

see paper flashcard

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158
Q

what does the ITCZ stand for?

A

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

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159
Q

where is the ITCZ?

A

in the middle when its in between the equinox and solstice

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160
Q

when does the ITCZ move north?

A

in summer

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161
Q

when does the ITCZ move south?

A

in winter

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162
Q

what is the residence time of the ocean?

A

up to 4,000 years

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163
Q

what is the residence time of the glaciers?

A

up to 1000 years

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164
Q

what is the residence time of groundwater?

A

2 weeks-1000 years

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165
Q

what is the residence time of soil?

A

2 weeks-1 year

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166
Q

what is the residence time of the atmosphere?

A

10 days

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167
Q

what is the residence time of lakes?

A

10 years

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168
Q

what is the residence time of rivers?

A

2 weeks

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169
Q

what is the residence time of swamps?

A

1-10 years

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170
Q

what is the amount of water held in each store in the water cycle determined by?

A

the transfer processes that act as inputs and outputs

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171
Q

how long ago was the last ice age?

A

18,000 years ago

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172
Q

what happened at the peak of the last ice age?

A

about 1/3 of the earth’s land area was covered by glaciers and ice sheets

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173
Q

what is the driving force for the movement of clouds?

A

the global atmospheric circulation model

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174
Q

what does the global atmospheric circulation model demonstrate?

A

variations in time and space of the water cycle transfer process

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175
Q

what is the equilibrium line?

A

on a glacier, this marks the altitude where the annual accumulation and melting are equal

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176
Q

what has happened to the equilibrium line in the recent decade as the climate has warmed?

A

the equilibrium line has moved to higher altitudes so most glaciers are now shrinking and retreating

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177
Q

what is the global atmospheric circulation model also called?

A

latitudes affect on climate

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178
Q

why are black clouds black?

A

as there’s lots of water which stops sunlight from going through

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179
Q

which cells in the atmospheric circulation model are the weakest?

A

the polar cells

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180
Q

how much rainfall must a place get to be a desert?

A

less than 500mm of rain

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181
Q

what does residence time mean?

A

the length of time water remains in the store

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182
Q

what is calving?

A

when the snout of a glacier falls off into the sea

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183
Q

where’s 95% of the water that’s stored in ice stored?

A

ice sheets covering Antarctica and Greenland

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184
Q

how old is some ice in ice sheets?

A

400,000 years old

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185
Q

how much could the sea level rice due to melting of polar ice sheets?

A

by 60m

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186
Q

how much of the 60m rise in sea level due to melting of polar ice sheets is actually due to thermal expansion?

A

80%

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187
Q

what is the equilibrium line?

A

this marks the altitude where the annual accumulation and melting (ablation) are equal

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188
Q

why does soil have the second shortest residence time in the water cycle?

A

due to the uptake of water through the roots and evaporation from surface of soil

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189
Q

why does deep groundwater have the longest residence time in the water cycle?

A

due to the fact there are no rocks to uptake water, and friction and impermeable rocks

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190
Q

how is snow formed?

A

by deposition and is it falls it does not melt

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191
Q

how is hail and sleet formed?

A

they are formed by deposition but as they fall they melt then rise again into colder air and re-freeze- this is how they then fall

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192
Q

what is the name for clouds on the ground?

A

dew

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193
Q

what is the name for frozen clouds on the ground?

A

frost

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194
Q

explain the role of cryospheric change in the water cycle

A

-cryospheric change has a regulatory role in sea levels
-the cyrosphere is a major store of water
-in a period of cooling the cryosphere will grow in size, this is because the water cycle is slowed considerably as the ice restricts the return of the water to the sea and ocean
-in a period of warming the cryosphere will add water to the cycle, as the water cycle restarts more of the ice melts and return water to the sea
-this increased the size of ocean store causing sea levels to rise through thermal expansion

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195
Q

define water table

A

point at which the ground becomes saturated with water

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196
Q

where does through flow take place?

A

above the water table but below the surface

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197
Q

how do rivers erode and when do they stop eroding?

A

rivers erode vertically until they hit the water table where they stop eroding

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198
Q

explain why the drainage basin hydrological cycle can be described as an open system

A

-it has energy transfers due to the suns rays
-it has transfers of matter (water) due to evaporation and transpiration which leaves the drainage basin and enters the atmosphere

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199
Q

what are four ways that water reaches a river channel in a drainage basin?

A

-directly from the atmosphere as precipitation
-surface runoff
-water infiltrates through the ground as throughflow
-water percolates through the ground as baseflow

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200
Q

suggest how hydrological cycle operations might differ between a mountainous region and a lowland forest region

A

-the mountainous region is colder so there would be little evaporation whereas the lowland forest would be hotter so there would be more evaporation
-the mountain area would have less trees so there would be more surface runoff as there’s no interception from trees or uptake from the roots whereas in a forest there are lots of trees so there would be limited surface runoff due to the interception of the leaves

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201
Q

what are two ways humans can impact the hydrological cycle?

A

-building impermeable surfaces increase surface runoff and increasing flooding
-cutting down trees reduces interception so also increases surface runoff

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202
Q

how is the water table affected in summer?

A

it’s lower in summer

203
Q

how is the water table affected in winter?

A

it’s higher in winter

204
Q

what is throughflow?

A

the flow through the ground above the water table

205
Q

what is infiltration?

A

when water breaks through permeable surfaces

206
Q

what is groundwater flow?

A

flow through the ground in the water table

207
Q

what is channel flow?

A

flow of a river

208
Q

what is river runoff?

A

when water leaves the drainage basin system

209
Q

is evaporation or transpiration largely dependent upon absorption of water from the soil?

A

transpiration

210
Q

is evaporation or transpiration a physical process that occurs on any free surface?

A

evaporation

211
Q

is evaporation or transpiration that the formation of vapour continues for some time even after the saturation of outside air?

A

transpiration

212
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if it varies directly according to the velocity of the wind?

213
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if it is a physiological process and occurs in plants?

A

transpiration

214
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if living cells are involvedq?

A

transpiration

215
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if any liquid can evaporate- the living epidermis and stomata are not involved?

A

evaporation

216
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if various forces such as vapour pressure and osmotic pressure are involved?

A

transpiration

217
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if not many forces are involved?

A

evaporation

218
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if the water moves through the epidermis with its cuticle or through the stomata?

A

transpiration

219
Q

is evaporation or transpiration the rate is slightly lower than evaporation under the influence of wind velocity because it lowers the leaf temperature?

A

transpiration

220
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if it stops when the air is fully saturatedq?

A

evaporation

221
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if it can occur from both living and non living surfaces?

A

evaporation

222
Q

is evaporation or transpiration if it continues as long as water is available on the surface?

A

evaporation

223
Q

what is soil moisture utilisation?

A

as it warms up potential evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation- the water store is being used by plants (utilisation)

224
Q

what is soil moisture defecit?

A

there is a defecit of soil water, plants either wilt or have adaptations to survive dry conditions

225
Q

what is soil moisture surplus?

A

precipitation is greater than potential evapotranspiration, all space in the soil has been filled and so it is in surplus, groundwater gets recharged, overland flow can occur leading to floods

226
Q

what is soil moisture recharge?

A

precipitation is greater than potential evapotranspiration, the soil water will start to fill again (recharge) until it gets back to its normal level

227
Q

what is the water balance?

A

the balance between inputs and outputs in a drainage basin, usually shown on a graph

228
Q

why is storage expressed with a +/- in the water balance equation?

A

because of drought/flooding

229
Q

what places can precipitation end up?

A

-evapotranspiration
-streamflow
-storage

230
Q

describe the UK climate

A

-precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration
-during the winter months when precipitation is high and evapotranspiration and temperatures are low, there is a soil moisture surplus
-but summer can lead to a soil moisture defecit

231
Q

what areas of a water balance graph should be the same size?

A

soil moisture utilisation and soil moisture recharge

232
Q

what can be done in soil moisture utilisation?

A

-plants
-agriculture
-humans

233
Q

what is the field capacity of soil?

A

the soil becomes as saturated as it can be

234
Q

what two things should you always think about when describing a water balance graph?

A

-always look at the key carefully
-look at where the place is in the world e.g. a desert and if the graph doesn’t match this then you are reading it wrong

235
Q

what does the word ‘compare’ mean in a question?

A

give similarities and differences

236
Q

what does the word ‘contrast’ mean in a question?

A

just give differences

237
Q

what is a river regime?

A

the pattern of seasonal variation in the flow of a river (discharge)

238
Q

what are river regimes related to?

A

-the geology and soils (so the amount of precipitation that finds its way to the river depends on: steepness of slope; permeability of the rocks and soils and vegetation cover)
-climate (the precipitation, temperature and evaporation rate)
-additionally (streams with many tributaries may have a different regime from streams with few)

239
Q

what are the different types of river regimes?

A

simple and complex

240
Q

describe a simple regime

A

-these show times of high water levels followed by lower levels, one cycle per year
-they exist as a result of glacier melt, snow melt or seasonal rainfall such as monsoons

241
Q

why do most British rivers have a simple regime?

A

-they are relatively short
-there is the same climate throughout the British Isles

242
Q

describe a complex regime

A

-if a river has more than one period of high water levels and/or low water levels [er year
-more common on large rivers that flow through a variety of relief and receive their water supply from large tributaries
-and through various climate zones

243
Q

what factors affect the shape of the hydrograph?

A

-drainage basin shape and size
-steepness of land
-vegetation
-carbon land use
-deforestation

244
Q

how does the drainage basin shape and size affect the shape of the hydrograph?

A

If there is a big drainage basin it will mean the river discharge is quicker. However, it will mean that the lag time will be longer as there is a bigger volume of water and there is a higher chance of interception.

245
Q

how does the steepness of land affect the shape of the hydrograph?

A

If it is steeper there is a quick water runoff meaning that there is a shorter lag time.

246
Q

how does the amount of vegetation affect the shape of the hydrograph?

A

Precipitation is intercepted by the plants so it takes longer for it to get to the river as the vegetation has taken up/ in the water. Water is lost by evaporation and transpiration also.

247
Q

how does carbon land use affect the shape of the hydrograph?

A

Agriculture have a variety of effects among which are ploughing that breaks up the top soil and allows greater infiltration, subduing the hydrographs. This can be enhanced by contour ploughing.

248
Q

how can you find out the discharger of a river?

A

multiply the velocity of the river, measured in metres per second by the cross-sectional area of the river measured in square metres

249
Q

what is the discharge of a river measured in?

A

cumecs (cubic metres per second)

250
Q

what does a storm hydrograph show?

A

how the drainage basin helps to respond to a period of rainfall

250
Q

what is bankfull discharge?

A

when the river is at maximum capacity (up to the river bank)

251
Q

what does the hydrograph allow us to examine a relationship between?

A

the rainfall event and the discharge- it shows the discharge before, during and after the storm

252
Q

what is bankfull?

A

the maximum discharge that a river channel is capable of carrying without flooding

253
Q

what is discharge?

A

the amount of water in a river flowing past a particular point expressed m³ s⁻¹ (camecs)

254
Q

what is a flashy drainage basin?

A

it leads to flooding

255
Q

what is peak discharge?

A

the point on a flood hydrograph when river discharge is at its greatest

256
Q

what is storm flow?

A

discharge resulting from storm precipitation involving both over land flow, through flow and ground water flow

257
Q

what is lag time?

A

the time between peak rainfall and peak discharge

258
Q

what does it mean the longer to lag time?

A

the longer the lag time the lower the peak flow, this is because the water molecules arrive to the river at different times

259
Q

what is baseflow?

A

water trickling out of the ground from bed and banks of river

260
Q

what factors affect discharge?

A

-weather
-drainage basin
-vegetation
-geology and soils
-land use
-agriculture
-construction

261
Q

how does weather affect discharge?

A

-snow slows down
-precipitation, intensity and duration
-temperature, evaporation reduces discharge

262
Q

how does the drainage basin affect discharge?

A

-shape, rounder=higher discharge
-size, smaller increases discharge
-slope, step slope means water reaches river more quickly
-drainage density

263
Q

what is drainage density?

A

the number of river/ stream channels in a square km

264
Q

how does vegetation affect discharge?

A

more trees can reduce infiltration due to higher interception, higher evapotranspiration and more uptake

265
Q

how does geology and soils affect discharge?

A

impermeable rocks increase surface runoff and humous soils absorb more water

266
Q

how does land use affect discharge?

A

-urbanisation
-drainage
-deforestation

267
Q

how does agriculture affect discharge?

A

removes vegetation and ploughing creates mini drainage basins in the fields

268
Q

how does construction affect discharge?

A

-dams
-levees
-afforestation

269
Q

what are dams used for?

A

to moderate the flow of the river

270
Q

what’s an example of a levee that failed?

A

New Orleans levee

271
Q

what is a storm hydrograph?

A

a graph of discharge of a river over a period when the normal flow of the river is affected by a storm event

272
Q

what does ephemeral mean?

A

name given to a river that only flows in winter (baseflow gets to zero in summer)

273
Q

what has to happen for a river to stop flowing?

A

the water has to drop below the water table

274
Q

how do you describe a hydrograph?

A

-The rising limb is described as…
-The falling limb is described as…
The lag time for _____ is…
-The peak discharge for _____ is…
-Some of the reasons of this shape include… because…

275
Q

during a drought would you expect more clouds or less clouds?

A

less clouds even though there is increased evaporation

276
Q

why do less clouds form during drought?

A

because the air is hotter- this increases the capacity of the air because it expands, this means the air can hold more water vapour which means the air does not condense and form clouds

277
Q

draw and label the water cycle

A

see paper flashcard

278
Q

how does agriculture affect the water cycle?

A

-farmers are able to control the local water cycle through irrigation or land drainage
-soils covered with plants have higher infiltration and soil water rates and therefore reduced runoff

279
Q

how does urbanisation affect the water cycle?

A

water cannot infiltrate the soil as it has been covered with impermeable concrete or tarmac, which increases overland flow and makes flooding more likely- soil water and groundwater stores are reduced

280
Q

how does water abstraction affect the water cycle?

A

-Colorado river became ephemeral due to water abstraction which has meant it doesn’t reach the sea all year round
-when water is abstracted aquifers become depleted, they can also become contaminated by inflowing saltwater if the water table drops below sea level
-abstraction can result in low flow conditions in rivers which can have harmful impacts on ecosystems

281
Q

how does soil drainage affect the water cycle?

A

-the water table is lowered, changing rates of infiltration and evaporation creates dry peat that is friable and vulnerable to erosion
-dry peat can also ignite which releases carbon
-land drainage causes nitrate loss which can lead to eutrophication (algae grows a lot due to fertiliser which suffocates fish)
-the dry topsoil can be subject to wind erosion

282
Q

how does irrigation affect the water cycle?

A

irrigation has a significant impact on water stores and transport processes, aquifers are in serious danger of being depleted

283
Q

how does deforestation affect the water cycle?

A

-leading to surface runoff and soil erosion and reducing soil water stores
-less trees means new vegetation generally has fewer leaves and shallower roots which means it uses less water than the forest it replaces
-the result is that less water evaporates from the land; more water runs off the land and stream flow is increased

284
Q

what are the top four greenhouse gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect?

A
  1. water vapour
  2. methane
  3. carbon dioxide
  4. nitrous oxide
285
Q

how does the ozone layer relate to climate change?

A

the ozone layer is not related to climate change at all

286
Q

what would happen if we didn’t have the greenhouse effect?

A

earth would be too cold and no life would exist

287
Q

describe the role of photosynthesis in the carbon cycle

A

the sun sends energy and plants take in the energy and converts it along with carbon dioxide into forms of energy called carbohydrates such as glucose and sucrose

288
Q

what happens when plants are decomposed?

A

it releases carbon back into the atmosphere

289
Q

what are fossil fuels?

A

previously dead living organisms that have been compressed under high pressure

290
Q

what fossil fuels do rainforests become?

291
Q

what fossil fuels do marine organisms become?

A

oil and gas

292
Q

what has industrialisation caused?

A

it has burned excess fossil fuels which has caused an imbalance

293
Q

how does humans breathing out carbon dioxide play a part in global warming?

A

humans breathing out carbon dioxide plays no part in global warming

294
Q

what is sustainable technology?

A

one where it’s inputs are equal to it’s outputs

295
Q

what did Boserupp say that can be used in a 20 marker?

A

necessity is the mother of all invention

296
Q

what is carbon?

A

a basic chemical element needed by all plants and animals to survive

297
Q

what are the roles of carbon?

A

-it’s recycling it essential for life on earth
-enables food to be provided for plants/animals
-enables energy sources to be created for industrial development

298
Q

where is most of the carbon stored in the world?

A

lithosphere- the rocks and the soil

299
Q

what is the carbon cycle?

A

the carbon flows between each of the stores in a complex set of exchanges

300
Q

what is an example of a fast element of the carbon cycle?

301
Q

what is an example of a slow element of the carbon cycle?

A

carbon being locked in the ground

302
Q

what are the different stores of carbon?

A

-biosphere
-atmosphere
-pedosphere
-fossil fuels
-hydrosphere
-lithosphere

303
Q

how many billions of tonnes of carbon is stored in the biosphere?

304
Q

describe the biosphere as a store of the carbon cycle

A

Vital for life on Earth by converting energy from the sun into carbohydrates that support life. Can store carbon for many years and transfer carbon into the soil. However through deforestation this carbon can be released back into the atmosphere very quickly.

305
Q

how much of a humans body is carbon?

306
Q

why do you rarely find carbon in its pure form?

A

carbon bonds easily with other molecules

307
Q

what is a storm hydrograph, and why is it importnat?

A

A graph showing river discharge over time during a storm event. Helps analyse factors affecting river flow and is a common exam topic in hydrology

308
Q

What is baseflow in a storm hydrograph?

A

Normal river discharge before a storm.

309
Q

What is the rising limb in a storm hydrograph?

A

The steep increase in discharge after rainfall begins.

310
Q

What is peak discharge?

A

The maximum river flow after a storm

311
Q

What is lag time in a storm hydrograph?

A

The delay between peak rainfall and peak discharge

312
Q

What is the falling limb in a storm hydrograph?

A

The gradual decline in discharge back to baseflow

313
Q

What is direct channel input?

A

Rain falling directly into the river

314
Q

What is interception?

A

Water absorbed by vegetation before reaching the ground.

315
Q

What is infiltration?

A

Water soaking into the soil (fastest in grassland, slowest in bare soil/rock)

316
Q

What is percolation?

A

Water moving deeper into underground rock layers (aquifer).

317
Q

What is overland flow?

A

Water running over the ground surface to the river

318
Q

What is infiltration-excess flow?

A

When rainfall exceeds the infiltration rate (common in summer).

319
Q

What is saturation-excess flow?

A

When the soil is already saturated, causing runoff (common in winter).

320
Q

What is throughflow?

A

Water moving laterally through unsaturated soil to the river.

321
Q

What is baseflow in terms of water movement?

A

The slowest process, where water seeps from underground into the river.

322
Q

How does drainage basin size affect hydrographs?

A

Smaller basins = shorter lag time, higher peak discharge.

323
Q

How does basin shape affect hydrographs?

A

Circular basins = shorter lag time; Elongated basins = longer lag time.

324
Q

How do steep slopes affect hydrographs?

A

Faster flow, shorter lag time, higher peak discharge.

325
Q

How does precipitation type affect hydrographs?

A

Intense/prolonged rain = higher peak, shorter lag time.

326
Q

How does rock permeability affect hydrographs?

A

: Impermeable rock = faster runoff, higher peak discharge.

327
Q

How does vegetation affect hydrographs?

A

More vegetation = slower flow, lower peak discharge.

328
Q

How does soil type affect hydrographs?

A

-Sandy soils = more infiltration, lower peak.
-Clay soils = less infiltration, higher peak.

329
Q

How does urbanisation affect hydrographs?

A

More concrete & drains = faster runoff, higher peak discharge.

330
Q

How does deforestation affect hydrographs?

A

Less interception = more runoff, higher peak discharge.

331
Q

Where is the River Ribble?

A

Located in Lancashire, UK, draining 2,182 km².

332
Q

Where does the River Ribble start?

A

In the Pennines at 442m elevation.

333
Q

How does rainfall vary in the River Ribble basin?

A

1775mm at the source, 890mm at the estuary.

334
Q

How does rock type affect the River Ribble’s flow?

A

-Millstone Grit (impermeable) → rapid overland flow.
-Limestone → throughflow via joints and bedding planes.

335
Q

How has human activity affected the River Ribble?

A

-Urbanisation → Rapid runoff from built-up areas.
-Agriculture → Overgrazing & burning increase erosion & runoff.

336
Q

Name three ways humans reduce river discharge.

A
  1. Water extraction from rivers/boreholes.
  2. Reservoirs storing water, preventing floods.
  3. Afforestation increasing interception.
337
Q

Name three ways humans increase river discharge.

A
  1. Sewage & industrial waste adding water.
  2. Inter-basin transfers bringing water from other areas.
  3. Deforestation reducing interception → faster overland flow
338
Q

Where does the Mississippi River rank in terms of drainage basin size?

A

It is the 4th largest drainage basin in the world (~1.2 million square miles).

339
Q

How do water transfers and stores in the Mississippi River change?

A

They change naturally and due to human impact.

340
Q

How much precipitation is lost to evapotranspiration in the Mississippi Basin?

A

> 75% of annual precipitation is lost through evapotranspiration.

341
Q

How does evapotranspiration affect different regions of the basin?

A

-Arid western areas → little runoff due to high evapotranspiration.
-Wetter eastern areas → main source of river flow

342
Q

How does seasonal variation affect runoff in the Mississippi Basin?

A

-Winter → More precipitation, higher runoff.
-Summer → Less precipitation, lower runoff.

343
Q

How does rainfall distribution affect the Mississippi River’s flow?

A

Uneven rainfall across the basin changes flow patterns throughout the year.

344
Q

How do storms affect runoff in the Mississippi Basin?

A

Storms saturate soil, leading to increased surface runoff & higher discharge.

345
Q

How do droughts impact river discharge?

A

-Initially → Lower discharge.
-Later → Hardened soil increases rapid runoff & flooding after rain.

346
Q

How does agriculture impact runoff in the Mississippi Basin?

A

-92% of the USA’s agricultural exports come from the basin.
-Irrigation stores water in reservoirs, reducing natural surface flow.
-Increases evapotranspiration.

347
Q

How do dams affect runoff in the Mississippi Basin?

A

-43 dams hold back water.
-6% of runoff lost due to evaporation from reservoirs.

348
Q

What increases water demand in the Mississippi Basin?

A

Growing demand for domestic, urban, and industrial water use.

349
Q

How will climate change affect rainfall in the Mississippi Basin?

A

Expected 5-inch (12.7 cm) annual rainfall reduction in lower Mississippi Basin.

350
Q

How will climate change affect river flow in the Mississippi Basin?

A

Less rainfall + higher evapotranspiration → decreased runoff & river flow.

351
Q

How could climate change impact irrigation?

A

Increased irrigation demand could worsen water shortages.

352
Q

what percentage of the earths carbon is made up of the biosphere?

353
Q

how many billions of tonnes of carbon is stored in the atmosphere?

354
Q

describe the atmosphere as a store of the carbon cycle

A

Carbon is held in the form of carbon dioxide and methane. In recent decades the amount has increased due to emissions from power stations, transport and deforestation. This had contributed to the enhanced greenhouse effect and climate change.

355
Q

what percentage of the earths carbon is made up of the atmosphere?

356
Q

how many billions of tonnes of carbon is stored in the pedosphere?

357
Q

how many billions of tonnes of carbon is stored in fossil fuels?

358
Q

how many billions of tonnes of carbon is stored in the hydrosphere?

359
Q

how many billions of tonnes of carbon is stored in the lithosphere?

360
Q

describe the pedosphere as a store of the carbon cycle

A

Decomposition of dead organic material creates carbon store for hundreds of years. Deforestation and land use change can release carbon very quickly.

361
Q

describe fossil fuels as a store of the carbon cycle

A

Hydrocarbons such as coal, oil and gas are long term stores of carbon. Since the industrial revolution they have been exploited for heat and power. The resulting combustion has pumped huge volumes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere contributing to climate change.

362
Q

describe the hydrosphere as a store of the carbon cycle

A

Very important carbon store. Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air and river water discharges carbon carried in solution. Since the industrial revolution more carbon dioxide has been absorbed due to emissions.

363
Q

describe the lithosphere as a store of the carbon cycle

A

The largest store of carbon. Long term store taking millions of years to form.

364
Q

what percentage of the earths carbon is made up of the pedosphere?

365
Q

what percentage of the earths carbon is made up of fossil fuels?

366
Q

what percentage of the earths carbon is made up of the hydrosphere?

367
Q

what percentage of the earths carbon is made up of the lithosphere?

368
Q

over the last century how much has the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased by?

369
Q

what is soil composed of?

A

broken up lithosphere (regolith) and dead organic matter

370
Q

what leads to the formation of fossil fuels?

A

burial and compaction

371
Q

what is most of the carbon in the ocean in the form of?

A

bicarbonate

372
Q

What is carbon’s role in living organisms?

A

Carbon is a core element in sugars, starches, fats, and proteins, making up about half of the dry mass in living things

373
Q

What are the four major carbon pools?

A

Atmosphere, Oceans, Earth’s Crust, and Terrestrial Ecosystems

374
Q

How much carbon is stored in the Earth’s atmosphere?

A

Approximately 750 PgC (mostly CO2)

375
Q

What processes have increased atmospheric CO2 from its natural level of ~560 PgC?

A

Fossil fuel combustion and deforestation

376
Q

How much carbon is held in the Earth’s oceans?

A

Approximately 38,000 PgC, mostly in deep waters

377
Q

What is the primary form of stored carbon in deep ocean waters?

A

Dissolved inorganic carbon and carbonates.

378
Q

How much carbon is stored in the Earth’s crust?

A

Approximately 100,000,000 PgC in sedimentary rocks and an additional 4,000 PgC in fossil fuels.

379
Q

How does photosynthesis contribute to the carbon cycle?

A

It removes ~120 PgC/year from the atmosphere, converting CO2 into plant material.

380
Q

How much carbon is released by respiration in plants and soil organisms?

A

Approximately 60 PgC/year for each process

381
Q

What role does decomposition play in the carbon cycle?

A

It releases CO2 as bacteria and fungi break down organic material

382
Q

How does the ocean-atmosphere exchange affect carbon levels?

A

Through diffusion, oceans absorb ~92 PgC/year and release ~90 PgC/year.

383
Q

How much carbon is released by fossil fuel combustion each year?

A

Approximately 6-8 PgC/year.

384
Q

What is the estimated carbon release from deforestation and land change?

A

~1.5 PgC/year.

385
Q

What has caused CO2 levels to rise ~30% above natural levels?

A

Human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation

386
Q

What is the greenhouse effect?

A

The process by which gases like CO2 trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, contributing to global warming.

387
Q

What is a carbon sink?

A

A system that absorbs more carbon than it releases, such as forests or oceans.

388
Q

What is a carbon source?

A

A system that releases more carbon than it absorbs, such as fossil fuel burning.

389
Q

What is carbon sequestration?

A

The process of capturing and storing atmospheric CO2.

390
Q

What are anthropogenic emissions?

A

Human-made emissions from sources like industry and vehicles

391
Q

What is decomposition?

A

The breakdown of organic material by microorganisms, releasing carbon back into the atmosphere.

391
Q

What is the greenhouse effect?

A

The warming of Earth due to heat-trapping gases like CO2, methane, and water vapor

391
Q

What are boreal forests?

A

Forest areas in the northern temperate zone dominated by coniferous trees such as spruce, fir, and pine.

391
Q

What is biogeochemistry?

A

The study of natural processes that recycle nutrients from the environment, to organisms, and back to the environment.

391
Q

What is an ice core?

A

A vertical section of ice removed from glaciers or ice sheets to study past climate patterns.

391
Q

What is a greenhouse gas inventory?

A

A statistical compilation of greenhouse gases emitted by a community, state, or country.

392
Q

What is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)?

A

An organization that assesses scientific information related to climate change and advises governments.

393
Q

What is the Kyoto Protocol?

A

An international agreement to reduce worldwide greenhouse gas emissions.

394
Q

What is longwave radiation?

A

Radiation emitted from the Earth and atmosphere, often referred to as infrared radiation.

395
Q

What is soil carbon?

A

Carbon stored in soil, largely from organic material, which plays a key role in the carbon cycle.

396
Q

what are the different ways that carbon moves through the slow carbon cycle?

A

-carbon dioxide in the atmosphere reacts with water vapour to form carbonic acid, this causes slightly acidic rainfall to fall onto the rocks and into the ocean which causes chemical weathering
-this chemical weathering releases carbon back into the atmosphere and the rocks storing carbon are also transported into the ocean through run off
-carbon dioxide from the atmosphere also diffuses into the ocean
-this carbon dioxide is taken into shells as calcium carbonate
-the marine organisms die and fall to the sea bed where they compact down to form sedimentary rock- this can then be converted to fossil fuels by heat and pressure and is stored in the lithosphere
-the carbon dioxide in the lithosphere is then released on destructive plate boundaries through volcanic eruptions

397
Q

how much carbon dioxide do volcanoes release per year?

A

about 200 million tonnes of carbon dioxide per year

398
Q

how long can it take for a molecule of carbon to go through the whole of the slow carbon cycle?

A

between 100 and 200 million years

399
Q

how old is the earth?

A

4.6 billion years old

400
Q

what is the governing factor for the location of biomes?

401
Q

what trees are found in boreal forests?

A

evergreens e.g. pine trees

402
Q

define carbon source

A

a store in which the release of carbon occurs at a faster rate than it is absorbed

403
Q

define carbon sink

A

a store in which the absorption of carbon occurs faster than it is released

404
Q

define fast carbon cycle

A

rapid transfer of carbon compounds over years, decades and centuries

405
Q

define slow carbon cycle

A

slow transfers, up to millions of years

406
Q

what are the main transfers operating in the carbon cycle?

A

-respiration
-decomposition
-combustion
-photosynthesis
-burial and compaction
-carbon sequestration
-weathering

407
Q

describe respiration as a transfer in the carbon cycle

A

-chemical process that happens in cells
-glucose is converted into energy that can be used for growth
-carbon dioxide is then returned to the air

408
Q

describe decomposition as a transfer in the carbon cycle

A

-when organisms die they are consumed by decomposers
-during this process of decomposition, carbon from their bodies are returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide
-some organic matter passes into the soil where it may be stored for hundreds of years

409
Q

describe combustion as a transfer in the carbon cycle

A

-organic matter in the presence of oxygen is converted into energy
-the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere

410
Q

describe burial and compaction as a transfer in the carbon cycle

A

-where organic matter is buried by sediments and becomes compacted
-over millions of years there organic sediments containing carbon may from hydrocarbons such as coal and oil
-some of the carbon dissolves releasing carbon dioxide, the rest becomes compacted to form limestone

411
Q

describe carbon sequestration as a transfer in the carbon cycle

A

umbrella term used to describe transfer of carbon from the atmosphere to plants, soil, rocks and oceans

412
Q

describe weathering as a transfer in the carbon cycle

A

-involves the break down and decay of rocks at or close to the surface
-through chemical reactions, the rocks will slowly dissolve with the carbon being held in solution
-can then be transported via the water cycle

413
Q

what are the factors in the slow carbon cycle?

A

-carbon sequestration
-burial and compaction
-chemical weathering

414
Q

how much carbon does the fast carbon cycle move in comparison to the slow carbon cycle?

A

moves 100 to 1000 times more carbon than the slow carbon cycle

415
Q

does the fast or slow carbon cycle contain more carbon?

A

the slow carbon cycle

416
Q

describe the flows in the fast carbon cycle

A

-flow of carbon from atmosphere to biosphere through plants photosynthesising
-in the ocean phytoplankton also take in carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis
-the carbohydrates the plants produced when the photosynthesised are consumed when animals eat the plants as they do this they release carbon dioxide from respiration and methane gas from digestion
-when animals die and decompose by bacteria and fungi which break down the carbohydrates releasing carbon dioxide and methane back to the atmosphere
-some of the carbon remains in the soil as humus
-fire (combustion) releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere

417
Q

what are peat bogs?

A

soil, dead organic matter and humus have decayed and become rich with water which stores massive amounts of carbon

418
Q

why do peat bogs have little oxygen?

A

because the soil is so wet there’s little oxygen in the soil so plants don’t decompose fully

419
Q

how long can plants be in peat bogs?

A

plants can be in the peat for hundreds of years and not rot away which traps massive amounts of carbon

420
Q

how could global warming affect peat bogs?

A

global warming could mean peat bogs absorb more carbon or if decomposer organisms in the soil work faster and return more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

421
Q

how is carbon transferred to the soil in the carbon cycle?

A

-decomposition of leaf litter
-root cell respiration and death

422
Q

how is carbon released to the atmosphere in the carbon cycle?

A

-plant respiration
-respiration by decomposers

423
Q

if the leaf litter was burned in a fire, what impact would this have on the carbon cycle?

A

this would release massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and prevent carbon dioxide from entering into the soil as leaf decay

424
Q

what are the factors of the fast carbon cycle?

A

-photosynthesis
-respiration
-decomposition
-combustion

425
Q

what is one of the key carbon stores on earth?

A

the cryosphere

426
Q

describe the positive feedback loop of carbon in the Siberian Tundra

A

-warmer air
-permafrost melting
-dark rock exposed
-lower albedo rate
-more sunlight absorbed by the earth
-warmer earth

427
Q

what happens when permafrost melts in the tundra (negative feedback loop)?

A

-stored carbon dioxide is released (in form of methane)
-methane is more potent to absorb atmospheric heat (20 times more potent than carbon dioxide)
-this contributes to further global temperature increase
-warmer conditions
-more plant growth
-more carbon dioxide stored by the vegetation

428
Q

what’s some evidence showing climate change is caused by humans?

A

-Vostok ice core, 1998, found 420,000 year old ice that was in an ice core that was 3,623m (this showed 4 climate cycles- 4 ice ages and 4 interglacial)
-EPICA core was 800,000 years old and mirrored Vostok data
-IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) said that humans are majorly responsible for climate change

429
Q

what are the human factors driving change in the carbon cycle?

A

-fossil fuel combustion
-cement production
-land use change: deforestation
-land use change: urbanisation
-farming practices

430
Q

what percentage of anthropogenic emissions is cement production?

431
Q

how much of the CO2 emissions is anthropogenic and how much is natural?

A

5% is anthropogenic and 95% is natural

432
Q

how does fossil fuel combustion change the carbon cycle?

A

90% of anthropogenic carbon release comes from combustion of fossil fuels- the remaining 10% comes from land use change, such as deforestation, land drainage and agricultural practices

433
Q

how have carbon dioxide concentrations increased?

A

since the 1960s global concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased dramatically from about 320ppm to just over 400ppm, the highest levels ever recorded

434
Q

why have fossil fuels been burnt in increasing quantities?

A

because it’s been driven by the rapid industrialisation of developing nations (including china)

435
Q

where has carbon dioxide levels been measured?

A

the Hawaiian Volcanic Observatory

436
Q

why have carbon dioxide emissions been measured in the Hawaiian Volcanic Observatory?

A

because it’s quite isolated so carbon dioxide values won’t be effected by changes in industry (more consistent measurements) and it’s part of the USA so has enough money to do it

437
Q

how does cement production change the carbon cycle?

A

for every 1000kg of cement produced, 900kg of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere

438
Q

describe the make up of cement industry emissions

A

50% comes from the heating of calcium carbon and 40% from the burning of fuel to power the process

439
Q

how has land use change changed the carbon cycle?

A

through the use of machinery, tree decomposition and slash & burn which all release CO2

440
Q

how have rising temperatures affected the amazon rainforest?

A

it has caused parts of the amazon to dry out (these absorb less CO2 and are more susceptible to fires) this creates a positive feedback loop

441
Q

how much forestry land is cut down each year and changed to other uses?

A

13 million hectares

442
Q

what does forest clearing accelerate?

A

the decaying of dead wood, litter and below ground organic carbon

443
Q

what does deforestation lead to?

A

-forest soils are moist but without the shade of trees they soon dry out
-trees also help maintain the water cycle by returning vapour back to the atmosphere through transpiration

444
Q

how does deforestation cause less carbon dioxide to be stored in the soil?

A

because there’s less trees so less burial and compaction so less biomass in soil

445
Q

how much of the worlds population lives in urban areas?

A

over half the worlds population

446
Q

how do farming practices change the carbon cycle?

A

When soil is ploughed, the soil layers invert with each other (allowing air to mix in). As a result, soil microbial activity dramatically increases, resulting in more soil organic matter being decomposed. As a result, more carbon is lost to the atmosphere.

447
Q

how much of agricultural emissions does rice paddies generate?

448
Q

list some figures about meat production and carbon dioxide

A

-producing 1 kilo of beef generates 65 times more CO2 than producing 1 kilo of potatoes
-US produces 40.9m tonnes of meat a year
-EU produced 44.5m tonnes of meat per year
-China produces 78.1m tonnes of meat per year
-if we were to eat half the amount of meat we would reduce greenhouse gas emissions from farming by 42%

449
Q

what are the physical factors driving change in the carbon cycle?

A

-volcanoes
-natural cycles
-wildfires
-carbon sequestration

450
Q

how has volcanic activity caused change in the carbon cycle?

A

-volcanic activity returns to the atmosphere carbon that has been trapped for millions of years in rocks deep in the earths crust
-volcanoes also erupt lava, which contains silicates that will slowly weather, this converts carbon dioxide in the air to carbonates in solution- in this way carbon dioxide is absorbed very slowly from the atmosphere

451
Q

how much CO2 is emitted from volcanoes in comparison to human emissions?

A

human activities emit between 100 and 300 times more CO2 than volcanoes

452
Q

how have volcanoes reduced the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere?

A

The warming effect of CO2 emitted by volcanoes is counterbalanced by the large amount of sulphur dioxide also given out. Conversion of this sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid which forms fine droplets, increases the reflection of the radiation from the sun back into space, cooling the Earth’s lower atmosphere.

453
Q

what are the three different Milankovitch cycles?

A

-eccentricity cycle
-obliquity cycle
-precession of the equinoxes

454
Q

how have wildfires caused changes in the carbon cycle?

A

-wildfires can be started naturally
-every year they burn 3 to 4 million km^2 of land
-wildfires turn carbon sinks to carbon sources

455
Q

what does carbon sequestration involve?

A

involves capturing CO2 from the atmosphere and putting it into long term storages

456
Q

what are the types of carbon sequestration?

A

-geological sequestration
-terrestrial/biological sequestration

457
Q

what is geological sequestration?

A

CO2 is captured at its source and injected as a liquid deep underground in a variety of stores (depleted oil/gas reservoirs, uneconomic coal seams, underground salt formations or the deep ocean)

458
Q

why is the ocean good at absorbing carbon?

A

due to its sheer size

459
Q

what is the advantage of the ocean as a carbon sink?

A

An advantage of ocean carbon sequestration is that it “sinks” to great depths within weeks or months of being captured at the surface. Once in the deep ocean, it is in a circulatory system measured in thousands of years. This happens quickly but it keeps it for a long time.

460
Q

what is terrestrial/biological sequestration?

A

this involves the use of plants to capture CO2 from the atmosphere, carbon is then stored in the stems and roots of the plants (as well as in the soil)

461
Q

what are the six stores of carbon?

A

-atmosphere
-lithosphere
-biosphere
-pedosphere
-cryosphere
-hydrosphere

462
Q

which sphere is the carbon budget calculated for a why?

A

the atmosphere because this is what’s causing humans the most problems

463
Q

what are the different impacts of changes in the carbon cycle on oceans?

A

-ocean acidification
-ocean warming
-melting sea ice
-ocean salinity
-sea level rise

464
Q

how and why are coral reefs affected by ocean acidification?

A

-CO2 diffuses into the ocean through direct chemical exchange which creates carbonic acid, this makes the ocean less alkaline
-carbonic acid reacts with carbonate ions in the water to form bicarbonate, this reduces the carbonate ions available which animals like coral and many plankton species need to create their shells
-as a result the shells und up being thinner and more fragile

465
Q

what is the global carbon budget?

A

the amount of carbon gained and lost in the natural and manmade workings of the world

465
Q

what does the carbon budget contain?

A

-inputs
-outputs
-balance
-deficit
-surplus

466
Q

why do we study the carbon budget?

A

it’s essential for understanding how carbon dioxide emissions are contributing to changes in the Earth’s environment in the present day

467
Q

what is carbon commonly measured in?

A

petagrams (Pg)

468
Q

what are the different impacts of changes in the carbon cycle?

A

-land (fast and slow carbon cycle)
-ocean (ocean acidification, ocean warming, melting sea ice, ocean salinity, sea level rise)
-atmosphere (tundra, carbon stored in vegetation)

469
Q

what does ocean acidification cause?

A

coral bleaching and bad for biomasses

470
Q

what two things cause ocean currents?

A

ocean warming and ocean salinity

471
Q

suggest reasons why the “Net increase is soil carbon” is a variable value

A

because it depends on where the tree is planted as if it’s planted on concrete then leaves can’t decay and it depends on climate also (hot and wet)

472
Q

how have land use decisions affect CO2 uptake?

A

-more wildfires leads to increased atmospheric CO2
-farmland replaces trees which means less carbon is stored
-more CO2 available in atmosphere as more photosynthesis from plant growth
-increased temperatures have led to increased length of growing season so may plants photosynthesise for longer
-increased temperatures have caused ice to melt which releases CO2 and methane into the atmosphere
-agriculture has become more intensive so more crops means less trees to take in CO2

473
Q

what are the key stores of carbon in the carbon cycle?

A

-lithosphere
-hydrosphere
-biosphere
-atmosphere

474
Q

what are the different ways carbon can move through the carbon cycle?

A

-geological cycle
-photosynthesis
-respiration
-decomposition
-combustion
-oceanic carbon pumps

475
Q

how does carbon move through the geological cycle?

A

Carbon moves via weathering, burial, subduction, and volcanic eruptions

476
Q

how does carbon move through photosynthesis?

A

Plants absorb CO2 to produce oxygen and carbohydrates

477
Q

how does carbon move through respiration?

A

Plants and animals release CO2 back into the atmosphere

478
Q

how does carbon move through decomposition?

A

Organic matter breaks down, returning carbon to soil/atmosphere

479
Q

how does carbon move through combustion?

A

Organic materials burn, releasing CO2 and heat

480
Q

how does carbon move through oceanic carbon pumps?

A

-vertical mixing: warm surface waters cool, sink, and circulate CO2
-biological pump: marine organisms absorb CO2; decaying matter releases it in deep waters

481
Q

what are the two main components of the oceanic carbon pump?

A

-biological pump
-physical pump

482
Q

describe the biological pump

A

-transfers surface carbon to the seabed via the food web
-carbon is stored long-term in the deep ocean
-dependent on healthy ecosystems; disturbances can destabilize it, re-emitting carbon back into the atmosphere

483
Q

describe the physical pump

A

-driven by ocean circulation in Polar Regions where colder temperatures enhance CO2 absorption
-dense, cold water flows toward the deep ocean, carrying dissolved carbon
-this process stores carbon for hundreds of years but is difficult to measure accurately

484
Q

how do planktonic ecosystems play a key role in the carbon cycle?

A

when these micro-algae die, they contribute to carbon storage in the deep ocean and may form oil deposits over time

485
Q

how could ocean acidification be a good thing?

A

-the more acidic seawater is, the better it dissolves calcium carbonate rocks
-over time this reaction will allow the ocean to soak up excess CO2 because the more acidic water will dissolve more rock, release more carbonate ions and increase the oceans capacity to absorb CO2

486
Q

why could warmer oceans reduce the effectiveness of a carbon sink?

A

-would decrease the abundance of phytoplankton, which grow better in cool, nutrient rich waters
-this could limit the oceans ability to take carbon from the atmosphere through the biological carbon pump and lessen the effectiveness of the oceans as a carbon sink

487
Q

why could ocean warming also be a good thing?

A

carbon dioxide is essential for plant and phytoplankton growth- an increase in carbon dioxide could increase their growth by fertilisation and they would take carbon dioxide directly from the water

488
Q

why does melting sea ice amplify the warming effect?

A

-when ice melts the highly reflective ice is replaced by more heat absorbent water which amplifies the warming that cause it to melt in the first place
-loss of ice bound algae affects marine predators, added to this is the fact that animals like polar bears rely on sea ice to get their main food source

489
Q

why is ocean salinity decreasing?

A

-caused by highest levels or precipitation and higher temperatures
-precipitation leads to higher river run offs that eventually reach the sea
-higher temperatures cause ice sheets to melt which leads to more freshwater in the oceans

490
Q

what are the two reasons why sea level is rising due to changes in the carbon cycle?

A

-melting of terrestrial ice
-thermal expansion

491
Q

how is melting of terrestrial ice causing sea level rise?

A

-high temperatures have led to an increased rate of summer melting as well as a drop in snowfall
-this imbalance results in a significant net gain in water entering the oceans from rivers against evaporation from the ocean

492
Q

how does thermal expansion cause sea level rise?

A

when water heats up it expands- warmer oceans have a greater volume so occupy more space and causing sea levels to rise

493
Q

what effects does the enhanced greenhouse effect have?

A

-causes coastal flooding through sea level rise
-increases frequency and intensity of storm surges
-causes smog (human form of fog) which can create health problems such as lung cancer

494
Q

what effects might the disruption of the North Atlantic Drift have on the NW Europe?

A

It would make the climate cooler as the North Atlantic Drift brings hot air from the equator which heats up Europes climate. North Western Europe would also be wetter.

495
Q

What are the likely effects of the predicted sea level rise on coastal communities? How might their response depend on their level of development?

A

Richer coastal cities won’t move even under risk of flooding as it’s too expensive whereas less developed communities can just relocate and rebuild with a relatively low cost.