30Q

Question 1

Discuss how nutritional management contributes to many of the health problems seen in horses.

Answer 1

The horse, as a non-ruminant herbivore, evolved to ingest a high fibre, low starch diet through daily foraging (>12hrs grazing).
Modern management practices such as meal feeding, decreased fibre/increased concentrate (constantly secrete gastric acid, decreased saliva for buffering), early weaning and intensive training programs with limited opportunity for free movement increases the risk of poorly buffered acidic gastric environment - gastric ulcers.
Meal size increased, frequency decreased.
Increased energy required to fuel performance - feeding of diets the horse isn’t adapted to.
Increased concentrate increases colic risk.
Increased obesity causes increased hyperlipaemia.

Question 2

Discuss the nutritional factors that affect egg shell quality.

Answer 2

Ca - egg shells contain about 2g Ca from feed origin, decreased Ca decreases shell integrity and is exacerbated by increased choline. Ca:P ration (low P).
Vitamin D3 - decreased shell weight if deficient.
Zn/Mn - increased Ca can decrease these resulting in decreased layer performance and shell quality.
Probiotics - bacillus based probiotics increase shell thickness.

Question 3

What is the difference between hyperlipaemia and hyperlipidaemia?

Answer 3

Hyperlipaemia is the condition whereas hyperlipidaemia is a state - increased lipids in blood rather than actual condition.

Question 4

How does hyperlipaemia occur?

Answer 4

Predisposed individuals have decreased feed intake, stress, feed changes, pain, and/or disease.
Causes; increased ADH, increased ACTH, increased GH, increased catecholamines, increased glucocorticoids and glucagon leads to increased insulin favouring lipolysis in adipose and liver tissue (FFA’s, TGA’s).

Question 5

Which groups of equids are more susceptible to hyperlipaemia?

Answer 5

Ponies
Donkeys
Miniature horses
Females during pregnancy/lactation and in general.

Question 6

Describe the benefits of feeding a high fat diet to the athletic horse?

Answer 6

Fat as a feed source has 3 x more energy than CHO’s.
Glycogen sparing effects - fat used for aerobic activities in place of glycogen which allows the glycogen to be stored for high intensity exercise.
Results in better performance and higher blood glucose levels post exercise.
Less metabolic heat production and decreased H ion produced during exercise.

Question 7

Why is the intensive preparation of young horses for yearling sales at odds with how current research suggests growing horses should be managed?

Answer 7

Aims for heavier, taller yearlings as they attract higher prices, however, this predisposes to DOD, OCD and insulin resistance.
Feed increased concentrates and decreased forage as well as stabled - not ideal as decreases foraging behaviour (stereotypies).
ADG can be up to 1kg/d - should be 0.4-0.7kg/d.
Rapid growth associated with skeletal abnormalities.

Question 8

How should yearlings be managed so they achieve the market ideal but at the same time maintain structural integrity?

Answer 8

Dont overfeed - aim for moderate growth (0.65kg/d).
Avoid excess DE and CP.
Ensure minerals balance - Ca:P, Zn, Cu, Cd
Direct link between high energy and low exercise and OCD occurrence (balance energy intake to exercise - lowest rate in high energy, high exercise).
Save smaller yearlings for later sales.

Question 9

What demands are placed on a lactating mare that increase her nutritional requirements?

Answer 9

Milk production on top of maintenance energy - provision of energy for foal.
3% BW in milk/day for first 3 months.
Need to recover from parturition and re-breed.
BCS suffers before milk production.

Question 10

What are the major nutrients that need to increase in the lactating mare’s diet to ensure she meets the demands of milk production?

Answer 10

Water
Energy (DE)
Protein (CP)
Calcium
Phosphorus

Question 11

Why is obesity in horses becoming an increasingly important issue?

Answer 11

Far more common than previously recognised.
Predisposes to equine metabolic syndrome, obesity, IR.
Modern management practices feed high energy diet (NSC), exercise, stabling.

Question 12

How does obesity contribute to the disease processes its implicated in?

Answer 12

EMS - DIAGRAM
Laminitis (pasture associated) - increased mechanical forces on lamellar tissue and/or insulin resistance and inflammation.

Question 13

What is the most important nutrient (besides water) required by horses?

Answer 13

Energy.

Question 14

What are the main sources of this nutrient and how is it obtained through the digestive process?

Answer 14

Stored in the chemical bonds of CHO’s, fats and proteins.
Primary source is CHO’s - NSC; hydrolysed and absorbed as monosaccharides in SI. Glucose enters portal vein and used for energy. Structural carbs; subjected to anaerobic microbial digestion in caecum and colon, produce VFA’s which are absorbed as energy source.
Lipids - mastication disrupts droplets and increases surface area for attachment of enzymes and bile salts in SI, absorbed into lymph via thoracic duct and enter circulation.

Question 15

What is the difference between a commercial pet food that is formulated to meet AAFCO nutrient profiles and one that is AAFCO feeding trial tested?

Answer 15

Association of American Feed Control.
Nutrient profile - contains every nutrient listed in the profile at recommended levels, less time consuming and less expensive as feeding trial not required.
Feeding trial tested - requires manufacturer to perform an AAFCO protocol feeding trial using the food as the sole source of nutrition. Gold standard and documents the pets performance when fed the food.

Question 16

Explain the difference between resting energy requirement (RER) and daily energy requirement (DER)?

Answer 16

RER = energy required by an animal in resting state.
DER = total daily energy needs varies depending on age, sex, weight aims, level of activity.  Calculated using RER.

Question 17

What is the formula for calculating RER?

Answer 17

70(BW)^0.75 (kcal ME/d)

Question 18

What is the fat and protein content of the following diet on a dry matter basis? Protein 7%, fat 4%, moisture 80%.

Answer 18

Fat = 4/(100-80) = 4/0.2 = 20%
Protein = 7/0.2 = 35%

Question 19

What nutritional advice would you give to the owner of a Jack Russel terrier bitch that was recently mated. The dog has a normal BCS and this is her first litter. The owner asks about feeding the bitch now and how he should look after the puppies till he sells them.

Answer 19

Find out what he is feeding now (including treats).
Provide young adult growth type diet up to d40 - ensure DHA enrichment for whole pregnancy.
After d40 switch to puppy food as energy requirements have increased by 30-50% and keep her on this until after whelping (at least 4 weeks post).
Closely monitor BCS/weight.
Food intake may be affected by abdominal fullness so may need to decrease meal size and increase frequency.
Puppies nutrient needs should be met by milk up to 3-4 weeks provided bitch is producing enough (increase feed if not). Supplement/bottle feed weaker pups with colostrum.
Weight daily to give indicator of dam milk production.
Gradually wean from 3-4 weeks - introduce solid food (blend with mothers solid food and water) as gruel then gradually increase solidarity.
Totally solid diet by 6-8weeks.
Ensure Ca is not in excess - leads to eclampsia.

Question 20

A 3yo male kelpie is loosing weight. What questions would you ask the owner about the dogs nutrition and lifestyle?

Answer 20

What do you feed him and how much?
Does he have free access to water?
What do his farm activities include?
Is he entire?
When was he last wormed?
Is he fed with other dogs?
Who feeds him?

Question 21

Calculate the 3yo Kelpies DER in kcal (assume DER = RER x 3).

Answer 21

DER = RER x 3
= 70 x (20^0.75) x 3
Use 20kg as this is ideal weight rather than 15kg underweight.

Question 22

The dog (3yo kelpie) is eating a dry food containing 350kcal/cup and he gets 1 cup in the morning and one at night. How much should he get?

Answer 22

Being fed 700kcal/d.

Requires 5.6cups per day - split into morning and night-time feeds.

Question 23

What would you advise the owner of the 3yo kelpie to do?

Answer 23

Feed him more - 5.6 cups/day.
Could adjust to increased energy food to decrease the amount being fed or decrease his activity.
Feed on his own.
Worm.
Weigh after a couple of weeks and monitor BCS.

Question 24

Outline important considerations in performing a food elimination trial in a patient with a suspected adverse food reaction or food hypersensitivity as the cause of chronic diarrhoea.

Answer 24

Avoid treats and snacks.
Feed a meat that hasn’t previously been fed, combine this with a CHO source (eg. potato).
Gradually reintroduce foods over 12 weeks.
If symptoms disappear with food change and appear with gradual reintroduction then a food sensitivity is present.
If symptoms stay even with food elimination then problem is not related to feed.

Question 25

Outline the details of a weight loss program that you would recommend to the owner of a 40kg (BCS 5/5, 8/9) 4yo golden retriever with no other known health problems. Include nutritional modifications and specific management instructions.

Answer 25

Find out current feeding regime including treats - calculate initial feeding amount from this or alter to a weight loss diet.
May need to convince owner of fatness.
Allow free access to water.
Walk daily, start gradually, working up to at least 30mins per day.
No treats - or find a low calorie alternative (carrots).
Set a goal for weight loss (weekly targets).
Only allow one person to feed, emphasise consistency and use a measuring cup and a designated feeding dish.
Feed multiple small meals/day, increases satiety, decreases begging and increases energy lost to digestion.
Feed pets separately.

Question 26

What are the 3 key nutritional considerations for a 9yo FS cat with chronic renal failure?

Answer 26

Controlled protein intake - reduces N waste product production (urea), reducing the GFR on surviving nephrons.
Controlled phosphate intake - reduce phosphate retention and hyperparathyroidism.
Controlled sodium intake - hypertension very common in association with CKD.
Also increase K and increase caloric intake.

Question 27

What are 3 dietary modifications that are indicated to dissolve struvite uroliths in a 6yo FS schnauzer?

Answer 27

Therapeutic renal foods.
Calcitriol therapy - aids in vitamin D conversion and hyperparathyroidism.
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors.

Question 28

What is the most important underlying cause to check for and treat to ensure success of the urolith dissolution process?

Answer 28

Urinary tract infections - particularly ones that don’t respond to antibiotic therapy.

Question 29

What are the major effects of heat stress on nutrient utilisation in pigs and how can these be overcome/minimised?

Answer 29

Increased temperature decreases feed intake and subsequent weight gain/milk production.
Management strategies;
- decrease stocking density; increases floor space per pig to lie down and extend posture, dissipating heat. Avoid straw.
- Ventilation; fans, air inlets, drip coolers, sprinklers.
- Feed more nutrient dense feeds in summer, increased benefit from decreased intake.
- If not free choice then feed at cooler times.
- Free choice water.
- Avoid transportation or schedule for cooler times.

Question 30

Briefly discuss the factors affecting voluntary feed intake in pigs.

Answer 30

Environment - Temperature, air quality, management, stocking density, disease incidence.
Genetics - length of lactation, BW and composition, litter sizes, fat reserves, voluntary feed intake.
Diet - digestibility, composition, energy density, protein/AA balance, water, feeding frequency.

Question 31

Describe the influence of dietary composition on insulin sensitivity and glucose dynamics in horses.

Answer 31

Increased NSC in pasture and sweet feeds or cereal grains predisposes to hyperinsulinaemia or IR due to the down-regulation of insulin receptors.
When horses ingest meals containing starch/sugars there are post feeding increases in blood glucose and insulin concentrations. Magnitude of these depend on size of meal, starch/sugar content, pre-caecal starch digestibility and rate of ingestion.
Glycaemic and insulinaemic responses are much smaller when horses have roughage.

Question 32

Discuss the health implications for the horse of fluctuations in insulin sensitivity.

Answer 32

Cells become resistant to glucose uptake action of insulin, initially this just means that more insulin is needed (hyperinsulinaemia) to keep blood glucose concentration within normal limits after a high starch/sugar meal.
In severe cases, very high insulin concentrations are ineffective and blood glucose may also be very high - hyperglycaemia which predisposes to laminitis, diabetes, cushings, EMS, obesity.
Decreased pancreas function due to high insulin production means cells become desensitised to insulin and so decrease glucose uptake.

Question 33

Suggest how/what horses should be fed to decrease obesity, laminitis, ER and oseochondrosis.

Answer 33

Laminitis - Hay NSC <10-12%, avoid grains and sweet feed.
Obesity - avoid NSC particularly grains, sweet feed, molasses, treats and new pasture. Increase fibre intake with hay and fibre based feed (e.g. beet pulp) if required.
ER - balanced diet, low NSC, high fibre, balanced vitamins and minerals (particularly vitamin E).
OCD - avoid overfeeding (<130% DE), balance minerals (Cu, Ca:P), don’t overfeed protein.

Question 34

Describe in detail what causes endotoxaemia in the horse.

Answer 34

Excessive consumption of readily fermentable CHO’s - may be due to inadequate adaptation to increased concentrate ration or accidental access to grain/concentrate.

Question 35

Describe the disease process of endotoxaemia in terms of microbes and changes in GIT environment. What are the likely changes of these consequences?

Answer 35

Grain overload causes lactobacillus and streptococci to proliferate - increases lactic acid and decreases caecal pH.
Starch fermenters proliferate and organisms that utilise lactic acid die, decreasing the pH further.
Ciliate protozoa that engulf starch and act as buffers are killed by the low pH and acid production continues.
Enterobacteriaceae die releasing large amounts of lipopolysaccharides into the gut, compromising colonic integrity.
Intestinal ischaemia due to endotoxins overwhelming the mononuclear phagocytes = Endotoxaemia.
Consequences = decreased blood perfusion to vital organs including lungs (hypoxaemia) and liver (diarrhoea, dehydration, increased PCV). Increased perfusion of GIT (cold extremities), anaerobic glycolysis (increased lactic acid in muscles).
Colic and acute laminitis.

Question 36

Explain how endotoxaemia is treated, including first aid measures that should be implemented by the horse owner.

Answer 36

Main aim is laminitis prevention - first aid is to stand horses feed in ice bath for up to 48hrs.
Treat with NSAID’s (decreases inflammation), fluid replacement, evacuate starch overload by administering mineral oil, and virginiamycin (antibiotic that controls lactate producing bacteria).

Question 37

How can endotoxaemia be avoided?

Answer 37

No sudden feed changes - slowly increase grain/concentrate portion of ration as this allows lactic acid fermenters and protozoa to multiply and buffer appropriately.
Small meals often increases digestion of starch in SI and prevents ‘spill over’ to LI.
Processing of grain - gelatinisation increases SI digestion.
Keep NSC below 0.25% BW.

Question 38

Discuss how you would manage a starving horse in a referring program. Include discussion on issues you are trying to prevent.

Answer 38

Days 1-3: 1/2kg high quality lucerne every 4hrs.
Days 4-10: slowly increase lucern a and feeding frequency to 2kg hay every 8 hrs.
Day 10 onwards: feed as much lucerne as horse will eat, provide access to salt block.
Once BCS 3/5 hay can be decreased again and BCS monitored.
Don’t feed grain, treats or other supplements until recovered as will complicate the return to normal metabolic function.
Provide ad lib clean, fresh water.
Trying to prevent re-feeding syndrome which is high levels of insulin and glucose entering tissues (body has adapted to low glucose and insulin so uses ketones for tissue metabolism). K, P, Mg, B1 all accompany glucose uptake from ECF which results in profound deleterious changes in cardiac and respiratory function that may result in death within 3 days of initial re-feeding.

Question 39

Describe how pre- and post-natal nutrition may affect the growth and development of the foal.

Answer 39

Pre-natal: most weight gain occurs in 3rd trimester but nutrient needs are increased before then for the mare.
Foals from iodine deficient mares may be stillborn or weak and unable to stand/suckle.
Vit E/Se deficiency results in white muscle disease.
Ca, P and/or vitamin D deficiency results in rickets.
Low protein and lysine (first limiting AA) results in decreased growth and development of young animals, also decreased milk production in mare.
Dietary energy critical during growth to support development of energy dense tissues such as muscle and adipose.

Question 40

Describe the effect of over and under nutrition on fertility in the mare.

Answer 40

Non-pregnant mares in good BCS at onset of breeding season will generally have increased conception rates and less cycles to conceive.
Thin mare have longer anovulatory period and later date of first ovulation.
Aim for rising plane of nutrition in 6weeks pre-joining.

Question 41

From a nutritional perspective, what can be done to increase fertility of a stallion?

Answer 41

Maintain good BCS.

Feed omega 3 FA/DHA to assist in semen quality for transportation (chilled/frozen).

Question 42

Potential alternatives to antibiotic growth enhancer include;
a) diet acidification
b) herbs/flavours
c) non-starch polysaccharides
For each of these, discuss their potential use and benefits in the pig industry.

Answer 42

NSP - insoluble forms recognised as dietary component for decreased post-weaning coccidiosis. Decreases proliferation of E.coli and clostridium, increase villous height:crypt depth ratio. Mechanical contact with epithelial layer causes ‘washout’ of mucins and mucous bound microbes (E.coli).
Diet acidification - organic acids (fumaric, lactic, citric) can be both bacteriostatic and bactericidal depending on their level of dietary inclusion. Can be effectly used with other feed additives. Lactic acid can decrease gastric pH and delay multiplication of E.Coli. Postweaning lag period results in decreased digestion due to decreased HCl - acid counter acts this.
Herbs/flavours - antimicrobial, antiviral and antioxidative properties. Stimulate endocrine, immune, appetite and increase palatability.

Question 43

Discuss how using fat as an energy substrate is beneficial to both endurance and thoroughbred horses.

Answer 43

Concentrated source of energy that can be readily utilised by the horse.
Spares muscle glycogen stores.
Endurance - horses preferentially use fat as energy substrate for sub maximal exercise, allowing glycogen to be conserved for high intensity exercise.
Fat added to the diet increases DE while not greatly increasing meal size - allows for higher amounts of energy to be safely consumed.
Helps protect from fatigue.

Question 44

What levels of fat should be fed to achieve benefits of high fat diet? Formulate a balanced ration for a horse in heavy work to reflect this.

Answer 44

Can feed up to 20% fat in diet, generally recommended around 5-8% for endurance horses.
Balanced ration; lucerne 8kg, oats (whole) 5kg, vegetable oil 500ml, Salt 100g.

Question 45

Why do horses not suffer the same consequences as humans from increased fat and high salt diets?

Answer 45

Horses can digest fat very efficiently in SI - high fat for them is up to 20%.
High fat for a human is 40-70%, much higher.
Salt - horses need 10g/d, humans only need 1g/d.

Question 46

What nutritional factors are likely to have contributed to Jill’s alopecia and why?

Answer 46

Not enough energy for lactation - low protein and fat, high carbs.

Question 47

What nutritional factors are likely to have contributed to the kits behaviour?

Answer 47

Not enough feed intake - Jill is not producing enough milk to meet their digestible energy requirements.

Question 48

Provide a brief assessment of the diet currently being fed to Jill.

Answer 48

Cat food is not good enough for lactating ferret, may have high CHO, low protein and fat.
Not being fed frequently enough either - ferrets typically eat 9-10 meals/day.
Strict carnivore.
Should have >25% fat.
Concerns over feeding formulated dry and canned diets on ferret health.

Question 49

Suggest a suitable ration and feeding schedule for the ferrets.

Answer 49

Provide high quality ferret or feline meat based feeds and treats.
Feed free choice.
Atleast 40% protein, 25% fat, 2% fibre.
Kitten milk replacers to supp feed kits.
Free choice water.

Question 50

What nutritional abnormalities might arise as a consequence of feeding vegetarian rations to a cat and dog?

Answer 50

Dog - protein deficiency, taurine and L-carnitine deficiency, vitamin D3, B, Ca, Fe and P deficiencies.
Cat - same, also arachidonic acid and vitamin A.

Question 51

Outline appropriate feeding plans for vegetarian cats and dogs including food and feeding methods. She will not feed commercially available pet foods.

Answer 51

Cats are strict carnivores so it will require at least some meat.
Don’t feed them together, put the cats food somewhere high and allow it free choice.
Try and find some supplements to ensure vitamin and mineral requirements are being met.
Grate or process any raw veges to increase their digestibility.

Question 52

Suggest a suitable ration and feeding schedule to either maximise egg production in layers or optimise production in broilers (both in hot environments).

Answer 52

Layers - maintain positive energy balance, supplement fat as it increases palatability and decreases metabolic heat, feed more times a day and at cooler times, vege oil, molasses and water all increase palatability and intake, crumbles/large particle size mash feeds increase intake.
Broilers - Lower CP by 2-3% but maintain methionine, cysteine, lysine and threonine. Increase energy by substituting cereal for fat (2%). Vitamin C added to water. Maintain acid-base balance by adding ammonium chloride, K chloride or sodium bicarb. Add 5% salt to water to increase intake. Withdraw feed between 10am-5pm to increase intake during cooler times.

Question 53

Discuss the benefits of using probiotics, prebiotics and exogenous enzymes in poultry rations.

Answer 53

Probiotics - improves properties of microflora already present in GIT, can also stimulate immune system depending on strain.
Prebiotics - non-digestable feed ingredient with selective effects on intestinal microbiota. Beneficial due to selective stimulation of growth or metabolic activity of a limited number of intestinal microbiota species. Immunomodulatory effects.
Exogenous enzymes - decrease viscosity of digesta in SI, increase its passage rate, decrease substrate fermentation and subsequent microbe proliferation. Decreases proliferation of pathogenic bacteria such as clostridium perfringens.

Question 54

What are the key nutritional considerations for an 8yo healthy pinscher?

Answer 54

Beginning to age - less active so may require less energy, more prone to obesity and metabolic aberrations. Thyroid function may decrease.
Omega-3 may be beneficial to increase skin and coat health, joint health and cognitive function. Increased fibre decreases constipation in mature dogs.

Question 55

Outline a feeding program for the pinscher.

Answer 55

Swap jerky treats for dental chews.
No ice-cream and no free choice feeding.
Recommend ageing/mature dog mix - feed dry in morning and night then tin once daily.

Question 56

Should there be any concern over the Pinschers decreased appetite?

Answer 56

No - as dogs age their energy requirements decrease - this means their food intake may also decrease.
Recommend close monitoring of BCS.

Question 57

Why is the newly weaned pig such a challenge from a nutritional perspective?

Answer 57

Subject to multiple stressors - separation from mother, litter mates, new environment, change in diet.
Decreased voluntary feed intake, growth and production.
Weaning shows marked changes in histology and biochemistry of SI - villous atrophy, crypt hyperplasia.
Intake of food necessary for maintenance of SI integrity.
ME(maintenance) not met until 5d post weaning.
Post weaning diarrhoea/colibacillosis.

Question 58

Describe the mechanisms by which each of the following can enhance GIT health; dairy products, spray dried plasma, lactose, glatamine/gluatamate, alanine/glycine.

Answer 58

Dairy - Villous height and crypt depth maintained due to increased voluntary feed intake as increased palatability.
Plasma - Decreased incidence of post weaning diarrhoea possibly due to increased immunocompetance.
Lactose - fermentable CHO’s improve microbiota composition and functionality of SI and LI. Decreases E.coli.
Glutamine/mate - improves growth performance and feed efficiency. Limits atrophy of SI and major energy substrate for SI.
Alanine - Decreases diarrhoea and villous atrophy.

Question 59

Discuss one major nutritional disorder in cats, providing details of dietary cause for it, and major biochemical and physiological effects.

Answer 59

CKD - dietary cause is feeding of commercial food with high protein, acidifying and K depleted, leads to hypokalemia and CKD. Dental disease also predisposes.
High protein increases acid load and decreases P intake.
Low P causes decreased renal excretion of P causing it to be retained, increases PTH, increasing P and inhibiting renal tubular activation of enzymes responsible for vitamin D conversion (calcitriol). Low calcitriol, low Ca and high P cause renal secondary hyperparathyroidism, soft tissue calcification and renal osteodystrophy.
High NaCl causes systemic hypertension, transmission of pressure to glomerular capillaries.
Low K decreases GFR and decreasing urine concentrating ability.
Common in older cats >7yo.

Question 60

What are the effects of adding fat to sow diets during late gestation or lactation?

Answer 60

None.
High levels reduce feed intake and has no impact on sow condition.
Dietary FA’s utilised mostly by mammary tissue.

Question 61

Blood insulin = 189uU/ml (normal <20uU/ml). Interpret this with reference to laminitis.

Answer 61

Blood insulin concentration very high - insulin resistance.
Insulin released due to glucose in blood, cells have decreased sensitivity therefore decreased insulin binding and glucose uptake.
Increased glucose leads to inflammation of lamellae (causes vascular changes, oxidative stress and laminitis) (insulin is vasodilator) .

Question 62

Outline management for pony to lessen episodes of laminitis.

Answer 62

No grain.
Hay <10-12% NSC
Remove from pasture - dry lot or box, can be fitted with grazing muzzle when turned out.
Avoid pasture if green and rapidly growing, when stressed or clover dominant.
Increase exercise.

Question 63

Briefly explain why rapid weight reduction in this pony is fonts-indicated.

Answer 63

Cause increase in circulating glucose due to breakdown of glycogen and release of triglycerides stored in adipose tissue.
Results in hyperlipidaemia and hyperglycaemia which may cause subsequent episodes of laminitis.

Question 64

Discuss the nutritional factors that affect egg shell quality.

Answer 64

Ca - egg shell contains 2g Ca from feed origin, decreased Ca decreased shell integrity, this is exacerbated by increased choline, Ca:P (lowP).
Vitamin D3 - decreased shell weight if deficient.
Zn, Mn - increased Ca can decrease these and subsequently layer performance and shell quality.
Probiotics - Bacillus based increase shell thickness.