3: Social and psychological development

Question 1

Adolescent egocentrism

Answer 1

Adolescent egocentrism is the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves, and in their sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability. David Elkind (1976) argues that adolescent egocentrism can be dissected into two types of social thinking—imaginary audience and personal fable.

Question 2

Imaginary audience

Answer 2

The imaginary audience refers to the aspect of adolescent egocentrism that involves attention-getting behavior—the attempt to be noticed, visible, and “onstage.” An adolescent boy might think that others are as aware of a few hairs that are out of place as he is. An adolescent girl walks into her classroom and thinks that all eyes are riveted on her complexion. Adolescents especially sense that they are onstage in early adolescence, believing they are the main actors and all others are the audience.

Question 3

Personal fable

Answer 3

According to Elkind, the personal fable is the part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent’s sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability. Adolescents’ sense of personal uniqueness makes them feel that no one can understand how they really feel. For example, an adolescent girl thinks that her mother cannot possibly sense the hurt she feels because her boyfriend has broken up with her. As part of their eff ort to retain a sense of personal uniqueness, adolescents might craft stories about themselves that are fi lled with fantasy, immersing themselves in a world that is far removed from reality. Personal fables frequently show up in adolescent diaries.

Question 4

Self-understanding

Answer 4

Self-understanding is the individual’s cognitive representation of the self—the substance and content of self-conceptions. For example, a 12-yearold boy understands that he is a student, a football player, a family member, and a video game lover. An adolescent’s self-understanding is based, in part, on the various roles and membership categories that defi ne who adolescents are (Harter, 2006). Although self-understanding provides the rational underpinnings, it is not the whole of personal identity.

Question 5

Abstraction and idealism

Answer 5

Remember from our discussion of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in Chapters 1 and 3 that many adolescents begin to think in more abstract and idealistic ways. When asked to describe themselves, adolescents are more likely than children to use abstract and idealistic terms. Consider 14-year-old Laurie’s abstract description of herself: “I am a human being. I am indecisive. I don’t know who I am.” Also consider her idealistic description of herself: “I am a naturally sensitive person who really cares about people’s feelings. I think I’m pretty good-looking.” Not all adolescents describe themselves in idealistic ways, but most adolescents distinguish between the real self and the ideal self.

Question 6

Differentiation

Answer 6

Over time, an adolescent’s self-understanding becomes increasingly differentiated (Harter, 2006, 2012). Adolescents are more likely than children to note contextual or situational variations when describing themselves (Harter, Waters, & Whitesell, 1996). For example, a 15-year-old girl might describe herself by using one set of characteristics in connection with her family and another set of characteristics in connection with her peers and friends. In sum, adolescents are more likely than children to understand that they possess several diff erent selves, each one to some degree refl ecting a specifi c role or context.

Question 7

Perspective taking

Answer 7

Perspective taking is the ability to assume another person’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings.

Question 8

Self-esteem

Answer 8

Self-esteem, also referred to as self-worth or self-image, is the global evaluative dimension of the self. For example, an adolescent or emerging adult might perceive that she is not merely a person but a good person. Of course, not all adolescents and emerging adults have an overall positive image of themselves. An adolescent with low self-esteem may describe himself as a bad person.

Question 9

Self-concept

Answer 9

self-concept refers to domain-specifi c evaluations of the self. Adolescents and emerging adults make self-evaluations in many domains—academic, athletic, physical appearance, and so on. For example, an adolescent may have a negative academic self-concept because he is getting poor grades but have a positive athletic self-concept because he is a star swimmer. In sum, self-esteem refers to global self-evaluations, self-concept to domain-specifi c evaluations.

Question 10

Narcissism

Answer 10

Narcissism refers to a self-centered and self-concerned approach toward others. Typically, narcissists are unaware of their actual self and how others perceive them. Th is lack of awareness contributes to their adjustment problems. Narcissists are excessively self-centered and self-congratulatory, viewing their own needs and desires as paramount. As a result, narcissists rarely show any empathy toward others. In fact, narcissists oft en devalue people around them to protect their own precarious self-esteem, yet they oft en respond with rage and shame when others do not admire them or treat them in accordance with their grandiose fantasies about themselves. Narcissists are at their most grandiose when their self-esteem is threatened. Narcissists may fl y into a frenzy if they have given an unsatisfactory performance.

Question 11

Identity

Answer 11

Identity is who a person believes she or he is, representing a synthesis and integration of self-understanding.

Question 12

The sexual culture

Answer 12

Increased permissiveness in adolescent sexuality is linked to increased permissiveness in the larger culture. Adolescent initiation of sexual intercourse is related to exposure to explicit sex on TV.

Question 13

Developing a sexual identity

Answer 13

Developing a sexual identity is multifaceted. An adolescent’s sexual identity involves an indication of sexual orientation, interests, and styles of behavior.

Question 14

Heterosexual attitudes and behavior

Answer 14

The progression of sexual behaviors is typically kissing, petting, sexual intercourse, and oral sex. The number of adolescents who reported having had sexual intercourse increased significantly in the twentieth century. The proportion of females engaging in intercourse increased more rapidly than that of males. National data indicate that slightly more than half of all adolescents today have had sexual intercourse by age 17, although the percentage varies by sex, ethnicity, and context. A common adolescent sexual script involves the male making sexual advances, and it is left up to the female to set limits on the male’s sexual overtures. Adolescent females’ sexual scripts link sex with love more than adolescent males’ sexual scripts do. Risk factors for sexual problems include early sexual activity, having a number of sexual partners, not using contraception, engaging in other at-risk behaviors such as drinking and delinquency, living in a low-SES neighborhood, and ethnicity, as well as cognitive factors such as attentional problems and low self-regulation. Heterosexual behavior patterns change in emerging adulthood.

Question 15

Sexual minority attitudes and behavior

Answer 15

An individual’s sexual attraction—whether heterosexual or sexual minority—is likely caused by a mix of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors. Developmental pathways for sexual minority youth are often diverse, may involve bisexual attractions, and do not always involve falling in love with a same-sex individual. Recent research has focused on adolescents’ disclosure of same-sex attractions and the struggle they often go through in doing this. The peer relations of sexual minority youth differ from those of heterosexual youth. Sexual minority youth are more likely to engage in substance abuse, show sexual risk-taking behavior, and be the target of violence in a number of contexts. Discrimination and bias produce considerable stress for adolescents with a same-sex attraction. The stigma, discrimination, and rejection experienced by sexual minority youth are thought to explain why they may develop problems. Despite such negative experiences, many sexual minority youth successfully cope with the challenges they face and have health and well-being outcomes that are similar to those of their heterosexual counterparts.

Question 16

Self-stimulation

Answer 16

Self-stimulation, or masturbation, is part of the sexual activity of virtually all adolescents and one of their most frequent sexual outlets.

Question 17

Contraceptive use

Answer 17

Adolescents are increasing their use of contraceptives, but large numbers of sexually active adolescents still do not use them. Adolescents from low-SES backgrounds are less likely to use contraceptives than are their middle-SES counterparts.

Question 18

Adolescent pregnancy

Answer 18

A complex, impassioned issue involving an unintended pregnancy is the decision of whether to have an abortion. Adolescent pregnancy increases health risks for the mother and the offspring. Adolescent mothers are more likely to drop out of school and have lower-paying jobs than their adolescent counterparts who do not bear children. It is important to remember, though, that it often is not pregnancy alone that places adolescents at risk. Adolescent mothers frequently come from low-income families and were not doing well in school prior to their pregnancy. The infants of adolescent parents are at risk both medically and psychologically. Adolescent parents are less effective in rearing their children than older parents are. Many adolescent fathers do not have a close relationship with their baby and the adolescent mother. Recommendations for reducing adolescent pregnancy include education about sex and family planning, access to contraception, life options, community involvement and support, and abstinence. In one study, volunteer community service was linked with a lower incidence of adolescent pregnancy.

Question 19

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

Answer 19

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are contracted primarily through sexual contact with an infected partner. The contact is not limited to vaginal intercourse but includes oral-genital and anal-genital contact as well. AIDS stands for acquired immune defi ciency syndrome, a sexually transmitted infection that is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which destroys the body’s immune system. AIDS can be transmitted through sexual contact, sharing needles, and blood transfusions. Genital herpes is caused by a family of viruses with different strains. Genital warts, caused by a virus, is the most common STI in the 15- to 24-year-old age group. Commonly called the “drip” or “clap,” gonorrhea is another common STI. Syphilis is caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, a spirochete. Chlamydia is one of the most common STIs.

Question 20

Rape and sexual harrassment

Answer 20

Some individuals force others to have sex with them. Rape is forcible sexual intercourse with a person who does not give consent. About 95 percent of rapes are committed by males. An increasing concern is date, or acquaintance, rape. Sexual harassment is a form of power of one person over another. Sexual harassment of adolescents is widespread. Two forms are quid pro quo and hostile environment sexual harassment.

Question 21

Sexual literacy

Answer 21

American adolescents and adults are not very knowledgeable about sex. Sex information is abundant, but too oft en it is inaccurate.

Question 22

Cognitive factors

Answer 22

Cognitive factors, such as idealism and the personal fable, can make it diffi cult for sex education to be eff ective, especially with young adolescents.

Question 23

Sex education in schools

Answer 23

A majority of Americans support teaching sex education in schools, and this support has increased in concert with increases in STIs, especially AIDS. Currently, a major controversy is whether sex education should emphasize abstinence only or provide instruction on the use of contraceptive methods.

Question 24

Drug use

Answer 24

Th e 1960s and 1970s were a time of marked increases in the use of illicit drugs. Drug use began to decline in the 1980s but increased again in the 1990s. Since the late 1990s, there has been a decline in the overall use of illicit drugs by U.S. adolescents. Understanding drug use requires an understanding of physical dependence and psychological dependence. Alcohol abuse is a major problem, although its use in adolescence has begun to decline. Th ere is an increase in alcohol use and binge drinkingduring emerging adulthood. Binge drinking by college students is a continuing concern. Use of alcohol and drugs typically declines by the mid-twenties. Risk factors for alcohol use include heredity and negative family and peer infl uences. Other drugs that can be harmful to adolescents include hallucinogens (LSD and marijuana—their use increased in the 1990s), stimulants (such as nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines), and depressants (such as barbiturates, tranquilizers, and alcohol). A special concern is cigarette use by adolescents, although the good news is that it has been declining in recent years. An alarming trend has recently occurred in the increased use of prescription painkillers by adolescents. Use of anabolic steroids has been linked with strength training, smoking, and heavy use of alcohol. Adolescents’ use of inhalants has decreased in recent years. Drug use in childhood and early adolescence has more negativelong-term eff ects than when it fi rst occurs in late adolescence. Parents and peers can provide important supportive roles in preventing adolescent drug use. Being born into a high-risk family, having conduct problems at school, and being rejected by peers are factors related to drug use by 12-year-olds. Early educational achievement by adolescents has a positive infl uence in reducing the likelihood of developing problems with drug and alcohol abuse. Substance use peaks in emerging adulthood but begins declining by the mid-twenties.

Question 25

Juvenile delinquency

Answer 25

Juvenile delinquency consists of a broad range of behaviors, from socially undesirable behavior to status off enses. For legal purposes, a distinction is made between index and status off enses. Conduct disorder is a psychiatric diagnostic category used to describe multiple delinquent-type behaviors occurring over a six-month period. Predictors of juvenile delinquency include authority confl ict, minor covert acts such as lying, overt acts of aggression, a negative identity, cognitive distortions, low self-control, early initiation of delinquency, being a male, low expectations for education and school grades, low parental monitoring, low parental support and ineff ective discipline, having an older delinquent sibling, heavy peer infl uence and low resistance to peers, low socioeconomic status, and living in a high-crime, urban area. Eff ective juvenile delinquency prevention and intervention programs have been identifi ed.

Question 26

Depression and suicide

Answer 26

Adolescents have a higher rate of depression than children do. Female adolescents are far more likely to develop depression than adolescent males are. Parent-adolescent confl ict, low parental support, poor peer relationships, and problems in romantic relationships are factors associated with adolescent depression. Treatment of depression has involved both drug therapy and psychotherapy. Emerging adults have triple the rate of suicide compared with adolescents. Th e U.S. adolescent suicide rates increased in the 1990s but have fallen in recent years. Both early and later experiences may be involved in suicide. Family instability, lack of aff ection, poor grades in school, lack of supportive friendships, and romantic breakups may trigger suicide attempts.

Question 27

Eating disorders

Answer 27

Eating disorders have become increasing problems in adolescence and emerging adulthood. T h e percentage of adolescents who are overweight increased dramatically in the 1980s and 1990s but began leveling off in the middle of the fi rst decade of the twenty-fi rst century. Being obese in adolescence is linked with being obese as an adult. An increase in obesity has also occurred in emerging adulthood. Both heredity and environmental factors are involved in obesity. Being overweight in adolescence has negative eff ects on physical health and socioemotional development. Clinical approaches that focus on the individual adolescent and involve a combination of caloric restriction, exercise, reduction of sedentary behavior, and behavioral therapy have been moderately eff ective in helping overweight adolescents lose weight. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation. Anorexics weigh less than 85 percent of weight considered normal, intensely fear weight gain, and even when very thin see themselves as too fat. Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge eating pattern. Most bulimics are depressed or anxious, preoccupied with their body weight and shape, and typically fall within a normal weight range. Binge eating disorder (BED) involves frequent binge eating but without compensatory behavior like the purging that characterizes bulimics.