3. Qualitative research

Question 1

Key functions of qualitative research

Answer 1

Contextual: describing ‘what’s there’ - experiences, attitudes; the nature of something.

Explanatory: exploring why something is happening.

Evaluation: assessing how well interventions work.

Generative: developing theories/strategies/actions/support.

Question 2

Where can we obtain naturally occurring data from?

Answer 2

> Conversations and discourses

> Observations (participant/non-participant)

> Documents, texts, images, media

Question 3

How can we generate [qualitative] data?

Answer 3

> Interviews
○ Structured/in-depth/narrative
○ Focus groups

> Questionnaires

Question 4

List some sampling stratgies

Answer 4

> Convenience sampling
Random sampling
Purposive sampling

Question 5

Pros and cons of convenience sampling

Answer 5

PROS:
○ Participants are easy to identify and contact
○ Efficient and straight forwards

CONS
○ Unlikely to represent wider population
○ May not include all the characteristics relevant to the research question
○ —> results may be difficult to generalise

Question 6

Pros and cons of random sampling

Answer 6

PROS:
○ Every member of the population has an equal chance of selection
○ Reflects the characteristics of the wider population (if the sample is large enough) –> generalisable results.
○ Reduced risk of researcher bias.

CONS:
○ Large sample may be unrealistic for qualitative data collection and analysis.
○ May under represent groups/characteristics relevant to research questions.

Question 7

Pros and cons of purposive sampling

Answer 7

PROS:
○ Participants are selected according to the characteristics important to the research question.
○ Requires expert knowledge of the population; aims to reflect diversity within the population.
○ Highly relevant data.
○ Sampling strategies can be adapted as research progresses.

CONS:
○ Risk of researcher bias.
○ Results may not be generalisable.

Question 8

What needs to be considered with sample sizes?

Answer 8

> Sample sizes in qualitative research tend to be small – so they need to be carefully chosen.

> The aim is to reach ‘saturation’ (where themes and patterns in the data are repeating). Not looking to draw statistical inferences.

> Budgets and resources: qualitative analysis is time consuming.

Question 9

List types of interviews

Answer 9

> Unstructured
Semi-structured
Structured

Question 10

what are the characteristics of Unstructured interviews

Answer 10

• Not set lists of questions or topics
• Participants tell their story in their own way
• Narrative or biographical data
• Deeper understanding of personal and life experiences

Question 11

what are the characteristics of semi-structured interviews

Answer 11

• Flexible use of topic guide
• Explore emergent themes are concepts
• Probe for clarification and further information
• Explore respondent’s perspectives and opinions in depth

Question 12

what are the characteristics of structured interviews

Answer 12

• Standarised set of questions
• Concepts defined in advance
• Fact finding, hypothesis testing and large surveys
• Direct comparisons between responses

Question 13

What are topic guides and what can they include?

Answer 13

> Aid the memory of the interviewer

> Topic headings and subheadings (and prompts if needed)
Topics related directly to the research question
Not a rigid list of questions; flexible order and flexible ‘conversational’ wording

Question 14

How can we identify topics (for a topic guide)?

Answer 14

> Familiarisation with subject area e.g. literature review, discussions with stakeholders

> Brainstorming e.g. team discussion, pilot investigation

> Reflect on research beliefs and assumptions, identify and minimise research bias

Question 15

How can we develop a topic guide?

Answer 15

Broad structure:
○ Intro -> opening topics -> core topics -> closing topics

Wording:
○ Single words or phrases rather than questions
- Easy to read at a glance
- Flexible

Natural language:
○ Minimise researcher bias
○ Consider potential misunderstandings

Follow up questions/ prompts/ other instructions to the interviewer may be helpful

Question 16

Things to consider when starting an interview

Answer 16

- Ensure ideal physical conditions
	• Quiet private space
	• Seating arrangements
	• Recording equipment set up and tested
- Initial introduction
	• Recap project aims and outline
	• Reconfirm consent
- Reassure about confidentiality and anonymity

Question 17

Things to consider during the interview

Answer 17

• Ask clear questions
• Give respondent time to reply
• Follow the topic guide flexibly
• Make notes of issues you would like to return to and explore further
• Probe until you think that the respondent has replied to the question as fully as possible
• Show interest in what respondent says
• Avoid leading questions
• Don’t express your opinion on responses
• Use neutral responses

Question 18

Things to consider when ending the interview

Answer 18

• Try to end on a positive and complete note
• Use closing questions
• Thank the interviewee, re-affirm confidentiality
• Explain again how the information they have given will be used

Question 19

List some useful interview probes

Answer 19

• Encouraging respondent to continue through the silence and nodding or min response
• Inviting the respondent to elaborate
• Stimulating further thought
• Giving permission to express a controversial view

Question 20

What are focus groups?

Answer 20

A research technique that collects data through group interaction on a topic determined by a researcher.
Structured - formal/informal

Question 21

What are the key features of focus groups?

Answer 21

> Small groups (7-9) who ‘represent’ the sample population.

> Group dynamics are used to explore the participants’ views.

> It’s run by a moderator.

> Venue and time: aim to be accessible, and minimise distractions.

> Capturing the data: audio equipment, video equipment, field notes, 2nd researcher.

Question 22

What is the role of a moderator in a focus group?

Answer 22

> To ensure that all participants contribute fully.
> Give guidance and explanation.
> Controlling the balance between individual contributors.
> Questioning and probing.
> Observing non-verbal behaviour.

Question 23

What are some ethical issues with qualitative analysis?

Answer 23

> Informed consent
> Anonymity/confidentiality
> Risk of harm
		○ Potential to cause distress/embarrassment
		○ Vulnerability of participants

Question 24

What are some approaches to qualitative analysis?

Answer 24

> Thematic coding approach 
		○ Grounded theory
		○ Framework analysis
	> Conversational analysis
	> Discourse analysis

1. Managing the data - organise the data, it will often be rich and detailed.
2. Making sense of the data through descriptive or explanatory accounts.

Question 25

What is ‘Framework’ analysis?

Answer 25

A tool for qualitative data analysis

> Matrix based method for ordering and synthesising the data.

> Derived from ‘thematic framework’ - used to classify data according to key themes, concepts and emergent categories.

Question 26

Key requirements when analysing data

Answer 26

> Organise your material - need a ‘system’ to help you organise the data.

> Systematic and comprehensive - need to cover all the material.

> Within and between case searches - need to compare different participants’ stories, but also look within one participant’s story.

> Remain ‘true’ to actual data - ideas, patterns, emerging concepts to come from the data, rather than imposing abstract theories onto the data.

Question 27

What are the 6 stages of ‘framework’ analysis?

Answer 27

1. Familiarisation
2. Construct thematic framework
3. Indexing
4. Charting
5. Sort and synthesis labelled data within the charts
6. Develop descriptive and explanatory accounts

Question 28

Framework analysis: what’s involved in the ‘familiarisation’ stage?

Answer 28

Identify initial themes through familiarisation with the data.

> Gain an overview of all the material.

> Immersion in the data
	○ Read transcripts
	○ Listen to recordings
	○ Study observational notes

> List key ideas and recurrent themes
	○ Begin to conceptualise data

Question 29

Framework analysis: what’s involved in the ‘construct thematic framework’ stage?

Answer 29

> Develop an index of key issues, concepts and themes.

> Organise index into
• Main categories
• Subcategories

> Index will provide mechanism for coding data
May need to modify index as analysis proceeds

Question 30

Framework analysis: what’s involved in the ‘indexing’ stage?

Answer 30

> Apply the thematic index (tag/label) to the raw data.
• Reread transcripts/observations
• For every line or passage:
○ Infer the respondent’s meaning
○ Annotate margin with index codes
• One passage may have more than one code

> Show emergent associations within data.

Question 31

Framework analysis: what’s involved in the ‘charting’ stage?

Answer 31

> Aim is to synthesize and summarise data.

> Write distilled summary of each passage of coded data onto correct column of chart
• Don’t copy long quotes verbatim
• Summarise meaning (using pps’ lang)
• Annotate with page/line numbers (for ref)

> Don’t impose interpretations on data at this stage

Question 32

Framework analysis: what’s involved in the ‘sort and synthesis labelled data within the charts’ stage?

Answer 32

> Sometimes known as ‘mapping’

> Interpretation of whole data set after all interviews have been coded and charted

* Review the charts and research notes
* Compare and contrast accounts and perceptions of different interviewees
* Search for patterns or associations within data
* Weigh up salience and dynamics of patterns

> Build theory to describe and explain the data

[see later for using computers to assist with data management]

Question 33

Framework analysis: what’s involved in the ‘develop descriptive and explanatory accounts’ stage?

Answer 33

DESCRIPTIVE
> Identifying key dimensions
> Mapping the range of each phenomenon
> Includes the actual, verbatim language of interviewees

EXPLANATORY
> Finding patterns of association in the data and accounting for why they occur
> Rarely cite a single cause/reason; clarify nature and inter-relationship of contributory factors and influences

Question 34

Why computer assisted data management in framework analysis?

Answer 34

> CAQDAS: computer assisted qualitative data analysis software

• Very useful for managing large data sets
• Speeds up some stages of analysis and allows flexibility e.g. to modify coding categories as you analyse
• Provides powerful tools to explore and visualise data

Question 35

How can we assure validity and reliability in qualitative research?

Answer 35

Respondent validation: Taking findings back to the participants to see if your interpretation is consistent with their experience.

Quality of the work : Appropriate design and conduct of the research.

> Audit trail
Reflective journal

Triangulation

Question 36

What is triangulation and what types are there?

Answer 36

Triangulation is often used to indicate that two methods are used in a study in order to check the results of one and the same subject.

	○ Data triangulation
	○ Investigator triangulation
	○ Theory triangulation
	○ Methodological triangulation

Question 37

Benefits of triangulation

Answer 37

○ Provides richer description and deeper understanding

○ Improves reliability and validity

○ Reduces bias

○ Allows cross checking of data and of interpretation