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3 - Lecture Unit Flashcards

1
Q

5 Theories we learn?

A
  1. Attribution Theory
  2. Feelings-as-Information Theory
  3. Social Cognitive Theory
  4. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
  5. Attachment Theory
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2
Q

What is Attribution Theory concerned with?

A

How individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior.

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3
Q

Who first developed Attribution Theory?

A

Fritz Heider (1958)

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4
Q

What is the assumption of the “Attribution Theory”?

A

Attribution theory assumes that people try to determine why people do what they do, they “attribute causes to behaviors”.

The attributions people make greatly affect their thoughts, feelings, and future behavior.

attributions are critical to management because perceived causes of behavior may influence managers’ and employees’ judgements and actions!

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5
Q

What are the four main factors in Weiner’s attribution model (affecting attributions for achievement)?

A

Ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck.

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6
Q

What are the two related Attribution Theories of Motivation?

A
  1. Intrapersonal Theory
  2. Interpersonal Theory
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7
Q

What is Intrapersonal Attribution Theory?

A

Self-directed thoughts/emotions like pride, guilt, shame, and success expectations.

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8
Q

What is Interpersonal Attribution Theory?

A

Beliefs about others’ responsibility and emotions like anger or sympathy (help-giving).

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9
Q

Fill in the blank: Undesired and/or unexpected events promote _ .

A

Causal Search

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10
Q

Fill in the blank: The cause selected is dependent on a variety of ________ including social norms, past history, schematic beliefs and hedonic biases.

A

antecedents

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11
Q

What are the three key causal properties in attribution?

A

Locus, stability, and control.

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12
Q

Define ‘causal locus’.

A

Whether the cause is internal or external to the actor.

Refers to the location of a cause which is either within
or outside of the actor.

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13
Q

Define ‘causal stability’.

A

Whether the cause is stable over time.

Refers to the duration of a cause

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14
Q

Define ‘causal control’.

A

Whether the cause can be volitionally changed.

Linked to causes which can be volitionally changed opposed to those that are uncontrollable.

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15
Q

What is outcome-dependent affect?

A

Emotions resulting from positive/negative outcomes.

  • Positive and negative outcomes give rise to general positive and negative emotions
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16
Q

Student Fails Example (Aptitude Attribution)
allocation to causal dimensions:

A

Internal, stable, uncontrollable → low self-esteem, hopelessness.

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17
Q

Student Fails Example (Aptitude Attribution):

A

outcome: failing an important exam
outcome-dependent effect: happiness
causal search: search for causality if outcome negative/unexpected
causal antecedent: failed in the past while others succeeded
causal ascription: lack of aptitude
causal dimensions: internal, stable, uncontrollable
psychological consequences: low self-esteem, low expectancy of future success, hopelessness, helplessness, shame, humiliation
behavioral consequence: dropping out of school

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18
Q

Student Fails Example (Effort Attribution)
allocation to causal dimensions:

A

Internal, unstable, controllable → guilt, motivation to try again.

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19
Q

Student Fails Example (Effort Attribution)

A

outcome: failing an important exam
outcome-dependent effect: happiness
causal antecedent: partying the night before
causal ascription: insufficient effort
causal dimensions: internal, unstable, controllable
psychological consequences: lower personal regard
positive motivators: maintenance of expectancy, hope, guilt, regret
behavioral consequences: try harder

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20
Q

What does Interpersonal Attribution focus on?

A

Responsibility inferences + linked emotions (e.g., sympathy, anger).

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21
Q

When does sympathy arise in interpersonal attribution?

A
  • When failure is seen as uncontrollable (e.g., due to lack of aptitude).
  • Lack of responsibility for failure gives rise to sympathy and pity; these emotions then promote prosocial responding (help-giving and comfort).
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22
Q

When does actor is responsible in interpersonal attribution? Example?

A
  • e.g., achievement failure: the failed outcome is ascribed to lack of effort
  • Effort is a controllable cause, and the person is held responsible.
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23
Q

Similarities between Intrapersonal and Interpersonal theory

A
  • Motivational episodes are initiated with a prior outcome
  • Given an unexpected, negative, and/or important event, there is a search for causality
  • The cause selected is analyzed according to its causal properties
  • This gives rise to emotions, which are linked to action
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24
Q

Differences between Intrapersonal and Interpersonal theory

A
  • Intrapersonal: Information used to make causal inferences: Personal causal antecedents are more readily available; possibility of hedonic biasing
  • Interpersonal: Dimension of importance: Controllability
  • Intrapersonal: Locus and Stability are also included
  • Interpersonal: Added step linking control to responsibility
  • Interpersonal: Emotions involve others
  • Intrapersonal: Emotions involve the self
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25
What is the Fundamental Attribution Error?
Overemphasizing personality traits, underestimating situational factors. the tendency to believe that a behavior is due to a person‘s disposition, even when there are situational forces present that are sufficient to explain the behavior
26
Marketing application of Attribution Theory?
Used in complaint handling (e.g., explaining flight delays to reduce anger).
27
Theoretical applications of Attribution Theory
* Attribution intervention techniques (e.g. elderly health * maintenance) * Health programs (e.g. treatment of the mentally ill) * Marketing management: anger and complaint reductions (e.g. communication of flight delays)
28
Who developed Feelings-as-Information Theory?
Norbert Schwarz (1987).
29
What is Feelings-as-Information Theory?
It is a psychological framework model for conceptualizing the role of feelings in human judgement.
30
What is the basic premise of the theory?
People use feelings as information under certain conditions.
31
Another basic assumption of Feelings-as-Information Theory: Fill in the blank: ____ provide us with ____, reliable information about events and conditions within our current social environment that shape our most important judgement.
Emotions, rapid
32
How do moods affect judgments?
People tend to judge things more positively when they are in a good mood than when they are in a bad mood.
33
Feelings-as-Information Theory - Experiments showed the following: People attend to their momentary ____ as a source of information in forming ____, asking themselves “How do I feel about this?”
feelings, judgments
34
Fill in the blank: ____ and ____ effects highlight that people use feelings like any other source of information.
Discounting, augmentation
35
What is a 'discounting effect'?
Attributing feelings to an incidental source reduces their informational value.
36
What is an 'augmentation effect'?
A feeling experienced despite opposing forces is seen as highly informative.
37
What are the Core Postulates of the Feelings-as-Information Theory?
1. People attend to their feelings as a source of information. 2. The impact of a given feeling depends on its perceived informational value for the task at hand. 3. When feelings are used as information, their use follows the same principles as the use of any other type of information. 4. Like any other information, feelings can serve as a basis of judgment and influence the choice of processing strategies.
38
Name 4 sources of feelings.
Emotions, moods, cognitive feelings, bodily experiences. ## Footnote 1. People attend to their feelings as a source of information. Different types of feelings provide different types of information.
39
The impact of feelings ____ with their perceived relevance. The impact of feelings ____ the more other relevant inputs are accessible.
increases decreases
40
When do moods exert a stronger influence?
when people make decisions for themselves rather than others
41
People are more likely to rely on their feelings when they have high expertise in the domain of judgment. True or False?
False? They are less likely to rely on feelings.
42
When are people more likely to use feelings in judgments?
When processing capacity or motivation is low.
43
Feelings serve as a basis of ____.
judgment
44
Feelings that signal a “____” situation foster an analytic, bottom-up processing style.
problematic sad mood = bottom-up
45
How do happy vs sad moods affect processing style?
Happy = top-down (stereotypical) benign = global, top-down
46
In persuasion, when is mood less important?
When argument strength is high and processing is systematic.
47
Communicators with strong and compelling arguments have little to gain from putting their audience into a __________. (Fill in the blank)
good mood
48
True or False? Happy feelings make spontaneous message scrutiny less likely, making smiles, jokes and upbeat colors promising tools when we have nothing compelling to say.
True
49
People form impressions of others by attending to their specific behaviors (____ processing) or by drawing on stereotypic knowledge about social categories (____ processing)
bottom-up top-down
50
How do sad moods affect stereotyping?
Reduce reliance on stereotypes ## Footnote Perceivers in a sad mood are more likely to elaborate individuating information about the target person.
51
Example of mood's effect on brand choice?
People in a good mood may prefer stereotypically positive brands. ## Footnote Perceivers in a happy mood are more likely to draw on the person's category membership.
52
Why are feelings useful in judgment?
They offer quick, adaptive assessments of situations.
53
How do feelings affect information processing?
They guide whether processing is global or detailed.
54
Who developed Social Cognitive Theory?
Albert Bandura.
55
What did SCT evolve from?
Social Learning Theory.
56
Key focus of SCT?
* How people acquire knowledge, competencies * How people motivate and regulate their behavior
57
“Social”: acknowledges the social origins of much human thought and action **Cognitive?**
**Cognitive** recognizes the influential contribution of cognitive processes to human motivation, affect and action
58
What are the three elements of triadic reciprocal causation?
Personal factors, behavior, environment.
59
What is triadic reciprocal causation?
Human functioning is the product of a reciprocal interplay of personal, behavioral and environmental determinants.
60
What is self-efficacy?
Belief in one’s ability to produce desired outcomes. ## Footnote **Self-efficacy** refers to the confidence in one’s ability to behave in such a way as to produce a desirable outcome
61
What is observational learning?
Learning by watching others rather than by direct experience.
62
What are the 3 types of observational models?
Live, verbal instructional, symbolic.
63
What are the 4 steps in the modeling process?
Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation.
64
Bobo Doll Experiment key finding?
Children imitated aggressive behavior shown by adults. ## Footnote Learning not only depends on rewards or punishment (behaviorism) but also stems from watching somebody being rewarded or punished (observational learning).
65
Impact of media on learning (per Bandura)?
Media can teach aggression, weaken restraints, normalize human cruelty and shape reality perceptions.
66
Who developed Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
Leon Festinger (1957).
67
What does dissonance theory propose?
People are motivated to maintain cognitive consistency. ## Footnote We have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance).
68
What causes dissonance?
Conflicting thoughts, sentiments, beliefs, or behaviors.
69
How is dissonance reduced?
Changing cognitions, adding new ones that minimize the perceived magnitude of the discrepancy, or trivializing conflict.
70
What does the New Look model add?
Dissonance depends on freedom, responsibility, and aversive consequences.
71
The New Look suggests that dissonance **begins with a behavior** and in order for that behavior to lead to a cognitive or attitude change, two stages are necessary:
Dissonance Arousal and Dissonance Motivation
72
What is dissonance arousal?
Feeling responsible for an aversive outcome after a decision.
73
Several decision points need to be crossed in order for a behavior to bring about dissonance arousal: - A behavior has to be perceived to have an ________________. - Acceptance of ________________ for the consequences of the behavior is needed.
* A behavior has to be perceived to have an **unwanted consequence.** * Acceptance of **personal responsibility** for the consequences of the behavior is needed.
74
Aronson’s critique of the New Look model?
Inconsistency with self-concept is sufficient to create dissonance.
75
What is vicarious dissonance?
Feeling dissonance when a group member acts against group norms. ## Footnote Dissonance aroused in one group member could cause other group members to experience dissonance vicariously and result in attitude change by the other members of the social group.
76
Marketing application of dissonance theory?
Address buyer’s remorse via follow-up reassurance. ## Footnote THANK YOU.
77
Who developed Attachment Theory?
John Bowlby.
78
What is attachment?
A deep, enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space.
79
What did Ainsworth contribute?
Identified three attachment styles: secure, avoidant, anxious.
80
What are the lifelong effects of secure attachment?
Better coping, positive affect, and healthier relationships.
81
Repeated experiences of attachment-figure availability have enduring effects on **x** organization and **y** behavior.
x: intrapsychic y: interpersonal
82
Role of positive experiences of attachment-figure availability in Intrapsychic Level?
resilience resources > positive working models of self and others > mood & coping capacity
83
Interpersonal level: ____ influence the development of skills and attitudes associated with a ____ attachment style which ultimately facilitates the formation of harmonious relationships.
Experiences, secure
84
What is brand attachment?
Emotional connection to brands, similar to human relationships.
85
What are ‘Lovemarks’?
Brands with high love and high respect (Apple, Porsche, Starbucks).
86
What are 'Fads'?
Brands with high love and low respect
87
What are 'Brands'?
Brands with low love and low respect (Egg, milk brands)
88
What are 'Products'?
Brands with low love and high respect (Walmart, at&t)
89
____ explains the mechanism of using information to arrive at causal explanations for events.
Attribution Theory
90
Feelings can be seen as a source of information (____).
Feelings-as- Information Theory
91
____ explains that people do not learn new behaviors solely by trying them but rather replicate behaviors of others.
Social cognitive theory
92
____ suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid disharmony.
Cognitive dissonance theory
93
____ describes the dynamics of long-term relationships between humans.
Attachment theory

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