3. How Was Apartheid Codified And Implemented 1948-59

Question 1

What’s tha basic principle behind apartheid?

Answer 1

Racially defined groups within South African society deserved tailor made facilities.
Via separate development all racial groups would progress.

Question 2

What was the situation of apartheid after the election?

Answer 2

There was already lots of legislation in place upon which the national party could build.
There were laws removing blacks from the franchise and limiting where they could buy land.

Question 3

Why was apartheid a gradual process?

Answer 3

There were some laws e.g against sexual relations across the colour line that could be passed simply and there were others that requires a greater understanding of the distinctions within South African society.

Question 4

What happened as a result of the need to understand the distinctions within South African society?

Answer 4

Commissions were formed to investigate the best ways to advance the apartheid agenda.

Question 5

What was an early priority of the national party?

Answer 5

To stay in political power. In 1949, 6 members of parliamentwere added for whites in Namibia where the nationalists had support.

Question 6

What was the first thing nationalists needed to do to coloured people?

Answer 6

Made them a separate racial category with their own institutions and spaces instead of pursuing them as an ally as they shared much of their history with whites.
This was urgent as they still had a vote in the central parliamentary elections and they voted overwhelmingly for the United party.

Question 7

How could SA enact new legislation?

Answer 7

A majority in parliament

Question 8

How could SA enact new legislation to stop the coloured from voting?

Answer 8

The coloured vote in cape was specially protected and it needed 2/3 majority of parliament to change it.

Question 9

How did nationalists stop coloured voting?

Answer 9

The nationalists passed the 1951 separate representation of Voters Act, removing the coloured vote.
They got simple majority (less than 2/3) but seemed to abandon political constraint.
It was sent to court and The judges accepted the Act was invalid without 2/3 majority.
The government then appointed new Afrikaner judges to get their way and packed the senate with sympathetic afrikaners.

Question 10

What did the nationalists get from removing the coloured vote?

Answer 10

• they showed they were prepared to act ruthlessly to secure political power
• they won wider support within whites

Question 11

What we’re the results of the 1953 election?

Answer 11

In 1953 the NP increased it’s vote from 400,000 to 600,000 and outpolled the United party.
However it did not win majority of the white vote but had won the majority vote of afrikaners.

Question 12

What were the results of the elections for the following 40 years?

Answer 12

The national party gained a comfortable majority of parliamentary seats.
Afrikaners moves quickly to capture the stage including positions in the police, military and bureaucracy. During the 50s state employment went from 482,000 to 799,000 (mostly afrikaners).

Question 13

What were the similarities between Afrikaner nationalism and fascism?

Answer 13

• racial ideology
• ideas talking about the volk rather than individual rights
• November’s eg the ossewabrandwag
• they were opposed to socialism and communism
• they suppressed political opposition

Question 14

What were the differences between Afrikaner nationalism and fascism?

Answer 14

although afrikaners saw race as central to human difference, they didn’t advocate genocide of other races
A certain degree of political opposition was tolerated

Question 15

Who was on the national party but didn’t agree to apartheid?

Answer 15

-pragmatically recognises the economy requires African workers in large numbers
-white rural communities had no intention of dispense of with black workers in their farmers
Apartheid couldn’t do complete separateness

Question 16

What did national party planners convince themselves about how African people’s aspirations could be met?

Answer 16

A new political strategy that included Africans having self governing territories where their rights were diminished.
Separate development.
Over the long term, it meant increasing self government or Africans in democratic areas based around old reserves.

Question 17

Who was hendrik Verwoerd?

Answer 17

Minister of native affairs(1950-58)
Prime minister (1958-66).
He coordinated the apartheid project.

Question 18

Who was in verwoerds department?

Answer 18

Sympathetic afrikaners from Afrikaans universities

Question 19

What was the first step Verwoerd did?

Answer 19

He and his staff thought Africans still saw themselves as tribal people loyal to their old kingdom, The Bantu Authorities Act (1951) aimed to tackle the institution of African chieftaincy and ensure that traditional authorities were appointed throughout the African reserves. The aim was to place responsibility for local government onto a conservative rural African leadership that would cooperate with the government.

Question 20

What was the promotion of Bantu self government act, 1959?

Answer 20

This allowed traditional tribal lands to become fully fledged independent states with self governments.
It gave afrikaners hope tat African people would welcome separate development, not only from whites but in separate ethnically defined units.
Verwoerd argues he was offering internal decolonisation (what Europe was pursuing in Africa)

Question 21

What did Verwoerd do before becoming prime minister?

Answer 21

The NP was deeply concerned by Afrikaner poverty and Verwoerd devoted himself to this. In 1948 he moved into parliament And became the head of the native affairs ministry, the key to apartheid. He moved away from racist terms and used neutral ones such as separate development.
In 1958 he became prime minister.
In 1966 he was assassinated

Question 22

When was the mixed marriage act and why was it set up?

Answer 22

1949 and to stop whites and blacks reproduced (some didn’t like this due to religion some due to racism).

Question 23

When was the immortality act and what was it for?

Answer 23

1950.
To stop sex across a male and a female.
There were black families with an element of white and white families with an element of men due to settlers having relationships with their slaves. I

Question 24

When was the population registration act and what was it?

Answer 24

1950. For race to have clearer meaning to form new legislation it needed to be defined more sharply.
      People were put into four race categories and a national register recorded this and identities documents were given out so race was public knowledge.

Question 25

What were the three race laws?

Answer 25

Mixed marriage act 1949
Immorality Act 1950
Population registration act 1959

Question 26

When was group areas act and what was it?

Answer 26

1950
Townships were built on the edge of towns however there remained areas close to the centre where coloured, Indian and and African people owned houses shops or businesses.
This act gave the power to eradicate these so the central parts of the city were largely white.
Example include sophiatown in Johannesburg has become a symbol of cruelty if the act and resistance to it

Question 27

What was the racist terminology used in the 40s and 50s?

Answer 27

They didn’t like to use the words black or African so used the word Native. However Africans didn’t like that as it was instilled with pejorative meaning.

Question 28

How successful were Africans at rejecting native?

Answer 28

The national party stopped using it after coming to office.
It then went to Bantu meaning ‘people’ but white and black liberals rejected it.
Whites then used non-whites but black activists pointed out whites didn’t call themselves non-blacks so that was rejected in the 1980s.

Question 29

How many people lived in Sophiatown?

Answer 29

60,000 with wealthier people and poor tenants living side by side.

Question 30

Why did Sophiatown attract drum magazine (focusing on growing townships and became their mouthpiece) and what did they find?

Answer 30

It was close to the city centre and they recorded the hard-drinking, racy urban lifestyle for which it became celebrated, new music, shebeens (illegal bars), tsotsis (youthful street criminals) and gangsters.

Question 31

Why was Sophiatown the target for nationalists?

Answer 31

Because of what drum magazine recorded.

Question 32

When was Sophiatown destroyed?

Answer 32

In 1950 within 6 years, despite resistance it was gone into rubble

Question 33

What are statistics about Durban?

Answer 33

South Africa’s third largest city
Housed 450,000 people in 1951
1/3 were Indian 
1/3 African 
1/3 white
Indians owned substantial amounts of private property near the city centre and in Cato manor (adjacent to white suburbs).

Question 34

What was Cato Manor land use before 40s?

Answer 34

It was semi rural
Indians let land out to Africans who built shacks and houses
Indians grew vegetables focfamily use and sale

Question 35

What happened to Cato manor in the 40s?

Answer 35

The land filled quickly with shack settlements
1949 - African people attacked Indians who were exploiting them as landlords.
142 were killed and over 1,000 injured during riots.

Question 36

When did the government impose the group areas act on Cato manor and what happened?

Answer 36

In the 1950s.
By 1965, the shacks had been removed and tens of thousands of African people were sent to far townships.
41,000 Indian people had been removed to an exclusively Indian zone south of the city.
Unlike African townships, private property ownership was allowed in Indian suburbs.

Question 37

Did apartheid work in Durban, Cato manor?

Answer 37

It partly worked by making such small changes of rights between the different racial groups.

Question 38

What was district six?

Answer 38

A multi-racial, largely coloured, residential and business area near the heart of Cape Town city centre.

Question 39

When was group areas enforced in district six?

Answer 39

In 1966

Question 40

What happened when district six was enforced by the group areas act?

Answer 40

About 60,000 people were forcibly removed and resettled on the distant Cape flats: the district six buildings were bulldozed.
Valuable inner city architectural heritage were destroyed in order to Implement a racial ideology. Some of the site is still a vacant wasteland.

Question 41

What was the petty apartheid?

Answer 41

The typical symbols e.g. Reservation of buses and benches

Question 42

The Reservation of separate amenities act

Answer 42

1953

Entrenched and broaden the petty apartheid principle and made it legal to provide separate facilities for black people which were not of equal quality

Question 43

Influx control

Answer 43

Reducing African migration to cities

Question 44

What is the National party want to make city zones of?

Answer 44

Where whites would be protected from cheap back labour and from African protest and crime

Question 45

Natives abolition of passes act

Answer 45

This builds on pass laws and made it a requirement to have a reference book for each African adult they had to present this on demand.
This establish their identity and whether they had a right to be in urban areas

Question 46

Urban areas act 1952

Answer 46

Gave urban rights to a minority of people who had been born in town and worked for 10 years Or lived there for 15 years these rights were extended to the children.

Question 47

What did the government recognise despite their racial thinking?

Answer 47

The need for a relatively stable urban workforce and industries and services. African families were not able to buy houses or land in the city is even in the townships so this usually undermined their security and the capacity to accumulate family wealth

Question 48

When where reference books extended to women?

Answer 48

1956

Question 49

What were the negatives of the natives Abolition of passes act to people who were allowed in cities?

Answer 49

Who were frequently stopped and searched in the streets and they were constant victims of harassment the passes caused frequent abrasive and counters with police. They were see. As brutal and cream and black police men were also essential to the system

Question 50

What did convictions under the pass laws increased to In 1962 from 1952?

Answer 50

164324 to 384 567

Question 51

How many people attending to criminals between 1952 and 1962 for trying to exercise their right to move?

Answer 51

Three million. Pass cases clogged up the magistrates courts

Question 52

Why was the operation I’d pass laws poor in the 1950s?

Answer 52

Magistrates were inexperienced and always found people guilty.
Police were biased and racist
Court had to deal with a huge amount of petty cases

Question 53

Why did pass laws Fail to keep Africans out of the cities?

Answer 53

The African urban population of South Africa rose from 1.8 million in 1946 to 3,500,000 in 1960. This was more than the population of white people. African rights in the cities were diminished that people would have had to brave the pass laws in order to find work and other opportunities

Question 54

What was education like prior to 1948 for Africans

Answer 54

Racially segregated. A relatively small number of black South Africans attended elite mission schools.These were places where they offered abroad syllabus taught by white as well as black.
The great bulk of schools were funded by the government and churches and only gave black people basic primary education. Only 24 percent of black South Africans were recorded as literate in 1951.

Question 55

The Bantu education act of 1953

Answer 55

1951 census was a clear indication that the school system was in adequate for maths education. The act of 1953 therefore passed in order to extend education to African children but also to segregate the content of education. It brought schools for African students directly under state control

Question 56

What was another major reason for the expansion of education

Answer 56

The government was particularly concerned about the number of children joining urban gangs rather than attending schools. They feared the tsotsis (street youths)

Question 57

Why did the National party believe the Bantu education act was essential for changing the labour market

Answer 57

The need for African workers in the factories and shops was increasing rapidly and on skilled workers window longer adequate to meet this demand. Some degree of literacy numerously and linguistic ability in English and Afrikaans was seen as valuable in building and efficient black workforce.

Question 58

Who was he Henrik Verwoerd and what did he believe?

Answer 58

He was the minister of native affairs and believed that the state should provide basic education for a greater number of people but that the Bantu education should prepare African people for only limited roles and opportunities after school.

Question 59

Before the 1950s what happened to black students who finished their final school leaving certificate and came from wealthier backgrounds

Answer 59

They had been able to attend the use of University of fort hare and a few hundred were admitted to the universities of Cape Town and Witwatersrand where they received the same training as black people.

Question 60

Extension of university education act

Answer 60

Fort Hare had become a key centre of black student opposition to the apartheid and in 1959 yeah extension of university education act was passed to ensure that Fort Hare came under government control. The act also planned a full segregation by ways of the largely white English universities and set out plans for new universities for African ethnic groups and other racially defined minorities

Question 61

How did Africa benefit from the War?

Answer 61

It was a period of economic growth and optimism in much of the world. The Afrikaner Nationalists benefited hugely from global growth in the first two decades of power.
This helps them shape their view on the African homelands

Question 62

What were homelands?

Answer 62

A term used by the National party politicians and apartheid officials to refer to areas in which African South Africans would become self governing and eventually independent.They were also known as Bantustans

Question 63

Who was Tomlinson and what did he believe?

Answer 63

An agricultural economist at the University of Stellenbosch and he believed that the economic development of the former reserves had to be at the heart of the apartheid.He wrote that there is no midway between the two poles of ultimate total integration and ultimate separate development of the two groups

Question 64

What did the Tomlinson commission believe? (1955)

Answer 64

The bantustans could be transformed by massive state investment of over £100 million

Question 65

What were the recommendations the Tomlinson report put forward?

Answer 65

• £104 million should be spent On improving farming in the homeland and set up factories on their borders

The homeruns would eventually provide enough on placement for aaamost blacks and blacks would move all be moved from white towns and cities so the whites were no longer be outnumbered

Question 66

What miscalculations Did Tomlinson make?

Answer 66

The areaHe set aside for the black homelands Was well watered and fertile but it was only 13 percent of South Africa when blacks made up 70 percent of the population

He projected blocks would increase More slowly than they did

He didn’t realise how fast factories run by whites expand and pour more and more black flavour into white towns

Question 67

Why did the ward for Verwoerd reject the recommendations?

Answer 67

He didn’t believe that white South Africans would support expenditure on the scale nor did he want to create subsided industries that might compete with the urban white businesses. He felt that the Bantu should develop at their own pace and would not allow outside investment.
If land holdings were enlarged millions of Africans would lose land and have a little little option but to migrate to the cities to find work this way directly undermined a central tenent of apartheid.
He and his advisors believe that private land ownership would undermine the power of the Chiefs on whom he relied for political support. The Native Affairs department warned that individual tenure would undermine the whole tribal structure

Question 68

What was the policy of betterment or rehabilitation?

Answer 68

The investment in homeruns was well under the amount recommended by Tomlinson. This policy was cheaper but also very disruptive.At the time there was concern about and South African officials were very worried as they thought it was undermining peasant agriculture which would intensify property and drive more African people into the cities. Betterment would stop environmental degradation And enable Africans to intensify their farming without destroying the soil and vegetation

Question 69

How did the policy of betterment solve the issue of soil erosion?

Answer 69

Officials believed that livestock were the main cause of degradation And thought that the most effective way of combating the problem was to divide the pastures with barbed wire into smaller paddocks. Animals would be moved from project to project throughout the year to avoid overgrazing. To create and control a space for this policy government officials moved role family is from scattered settlements into compact villages.

Question 70

In what ways did The National party pursue betterment with great commitment?

Answer 70

Over 1 million people were forced to move into villages during the 1950s and 60s. Some African people were forced to sell some of their livestock in order to ease pressure on the pastures

Question 71

Why did the government abandon betterment in the 1960s

Answer 71

The removal of villages which cut across traditional ways of life and culling of livestock was so unpopular and deeply resented that they got rid of it

Question 72

What were the problems with the bantustan policy?

Answer 72

Although substantial new areas of white owned land were brought to extend the homeland they still made up a very limited percentage of South Africa as the National party was not prepared to divide South Africa equally because whites would never accept this.
Also Africans were to be subdivided into the historian you chiefTaincies and language groups but whites would remain whites. There was no separate bit of white South Africa for Afrikaners or English speakers. Most Africans conceived themselves at least partly as Africans and not simply as members of smaller ethnic groups

Question 73

What was the purpose of bantustans?

Answer 73

To divide land into seven areas each the homeland of a separate black group.

Segregate the blacks and whites into different areas permanently.

Help interbreeding to reduce mixed marriages

Question 74

What did the Congress alliance And ANC leadership do in 1956?

Answer 74

They were arrested in dawn raids.

Question 75

Who were the Congress alliance

Answer 75

Abroad coalition of anti-apartheid organisations including the ANC the Indian Congress trade unionists and others

Question 76

What happened to the people arrested?

Answer 76

The state worked within a legal framework so those arrested work use of high treason and subjected to a trial that was only fully resolved after five years. The prosecutor tried to prove that the Congress movement planned to overthrow the government by force and that they espoused Communist ideals.
The trial brought to the leaders of the Congress movement together in a special court room called Pretoria and this demonstrated to all the multi racial nature of the apartheid struggle.

Question 77

How did the treason trial benefit the anti Apartheid movement?

Answer 77

It demonstrated to all the multi racial nature of the apartheid struggle. Because of the media they were also able to use the trial of a chance to speak on the door about their ideas.

Question 78

What were the negative effects on the ANC because of the treason trial

Answer 78

It’s leaders were tied up in legal proceedings for several years. The prosecutors were unable to prove their cases and all the accused were acquitted in 1961