Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Kris 307 > 3. Glucose and Carbohydrate Metabolism (Part II) > Flashcards

3. Glucose and Carbohydrate Metabolism (Part II) Flashcards

1
Q

Which enzyme allows the conversion of glycogen to glucose?

A

Glucose-6-phosphatase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Where is glucose-6-phosphatase present?

A

Solely in the liver, kidney, and gut

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Why can’t muscle glycogen export glucose?

A
  • Because muscle does not possess glucose-6-phosphatase

- Glucose is the only substance within the pathway that may cross the plasma membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Which cells may synthesize glucose from gluconeogenic precursors?

A

Hepatocytes (liver)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Describe the Cori Cycle.

A
  1. Glycogen is converted to lactate in muscle tissue.
  2. Lactate is transported to the liver.
  3. Lactate is converted to glucose.
  4. Glucose is transported to muscle.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Describe the Glucose-Alanine Cycle.

A
  1. Pyruvate in peripheral cells accepts an amino group, synthesizing alanine.
  2. Alanine travels to the liver, where it becomes pyruvate.
  3. Pyruvate becomes glucose through gluconeogenesis.
  4. Glucose is transported to peripheral tissues.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What is the brain’s requirement for glucose per day?

A

120 grams (480 kilocalories)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

How much glucose does hepatic glycogen availability store per day?

A

190 grams

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

How much water does the liver store?

A
  • 4 grams of water for every gram of glycogen (190 grams per day)
  • Kilogram of both water and glycogen
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What explains rapid weight loss during a fasting state (or a very low-calorie diet)?

A
  • Glycogen stores are broken down to maintain the brain’s glucose requirement
  • Promotes a rapid loss of water through the loss of glycogen
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Why would some people call gluconeogenesis, glucopaleogenesis?

A

Because the glucose that we’re synthesizing during gluconeogenesis is not new, as we are regenerating glucose from precursors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are gluconeogenic precursors?

A

Amino acids, pyruvate, and glycerol

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

How does glycerol relate to glucose?

A
  • Three-carbon unit from TG

- Originally synthesized from glucose

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

How does pyruvate relate to glucose?

A
  • Product of glycolysis

- Generated from glucose

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

How do amino acids relate to glucose?

A

The carbon skeleton is synthesized from glucose

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Where does gluconeogenesis occur? What is it stimulated by?

A
  • In the liver

- Stimulated by glucagon and gluocorticoids when plasma glucose is low

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Why would stress hormones encourage gluconeogenesis? Give examples of these hormones.

A
  • To increase the availability of glucose in order to respond to the crisis at hand (fight-or-flight)
  • Cortisol, epinephrine
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What occurs to muscle during a fast?

A
  • Gluconeogenesis breaks down protein to allow for the utilization of glucogenic amino acid precursors
  • While protein catabolism is not ideal, survival instincts prevail over muscle mass
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

How long does it take for glycogen stores to become exhausted?

A

Around 24 hours

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

How is glucose homeostasis maintained at first during a fast?

A
  • Glycogenolysis

- Gluconeogenesis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What does the oxidation of fatty acids create? When does this occur?

A
  • During a long-term fast

- Creates Acetyl-CoA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What occurs to Acetyl-CoA when there is no oxidation of glucose?

A
  • Acetyl-CoA accumulates

- Joins together to form ketone bodies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What are the three ketone bodies?

A
  • Acetoacetate
  • Acetone
  • 3-hydroxybutyrate
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What is the function of ketone bodies?

A
  • May be transported in circulation and utilized in the brain for energy purposes
  • Good survival mechanism if fasting, as it provides a protein-sparing effect, while feeding the brain with energy
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Why does Acetyl-CoA accumulate when there is no glucose oxidation?

A
  • Anaplerosis is required to regenerate TCA cycle intermediates
  • If there is no glucose, the precursors from glycolysis (pyruvate) may not be utilized for anaplerosis
  • Acetyl-CoA is produced faster than it is removed in the TCA cycle
  • Also, fatty acid B-oxidation occurs in the absence of glucose, which causes Acetyl-CoA to accumulate
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What occurs when ketone bodies are overproduced?

A
  • Cause metabolic ketoacidosis
  • Decreases pH of the blood
  • Impacts the brain
  • Potentially fatal
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What is the life-threatening problem of untreated diabetes?

A

Ketoacidosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What occurs first during a long-term fast: protein breakdown or fat breakdown?

A

Protein breakdown, then fat breakdown (producing ketone bodies)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

How is substrate utilization measured?

A
  • CO2 that we are producing and the O2 that we consume in relation to normal room air
  • Indirect calorimetry
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What is the equation for the respiratory quotient?

A

RQ = CO2 produced/O2 consumed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What is the RQ if an individual is solely burning carbohydrates?

A

1.0

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What is the RQ if an individual is solely burning fat?

A

0.7

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Why is the RQ lower if an individual is burning fat?

A
  • Fatty acid molecule has more carbons than oxygens

- More oxygen must be consumed from room air than glucose

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

What is the basal metabolic rate for a 70kg man?

A
  • 1.0 kcal/kg/h

- 1700 kcal/day

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

What is the basal metabolic rate for a 55kg man?

A
  • 0.9 kcal/kg/h

- 1200 kcal/day

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Why is the basal metabolic rate lower in women than in men?

A

Because women possess less muscle mass

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What percentage does the basal metabolic rate make up in total energy expenditure?

A

67%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What percentage does diet-induced thermogenesis make up in total energy expenditure?

A

10%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What is diet-induced thermogenesis?

A

The amount of energy expenditure above the resting metabolic rate due to the cost of processing food for use and storage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What is adaptive thermogenesis?

A

Energy needed to warm the body in a cool environment, and cool the body in a warm environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

What percentage does activity make up in total energy expenditure?

A

23% (highly variable)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Which component of energy expenditure may be modulated?

A

Activity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Where is GLUT1 present?

A
  • RBCs
  • Brain-blood barrier
  • Fetus
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Why is GLUT1 important?

A
  • Because RBCs have no organelles (no TCA cycle) to produce energy
  • Their only source of ATP is glycolysis, so they need glucose
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Where is GLUT2 present?

A
  • Liver
  • B-cells of pancreas
  • Kidney
  • Small intestine
46
Q

Where is GLUT3 present?

A
  • Brain (neurons)

- Placenta

47
Q

Where is GLUT4 present?

A
  • Muscle
  • Heart
  • Adipose tissue
48
Q

Where is GLUT5 present?

A

Small intestine

49
Q

Which GLUT transporter functions increase at low glucose concentrations?

A

GLUT1

50
Q

Which GLUT transporter has high affinity at LOW concentrations?

A

GLUT3

51
Q

Which GLUT transporter has high capacity and low affinity?

A

GLUT2

52
Q

Which GLUT transporter is insulin-mediated?

A

GLUT4

53
Q

Which GLUT transporter is the fructose transporter?

A

GLUT5

54
Q

The effect of GLUT4 is immediate, what does that suggest?

A

That the GLUT4 transporter protein is not synthesized, but stored

55
Q

How does insulin receptor signalling increase glucose entry?

A

Stimulates GLUT4 exocytosis and incorporation into the cell membrane

56
Q

Which cells cannot synthesize glucose from gluconeogenic precursors?

A

Peripheral cells

57
Q

What must glucose that is metabolized in peripheral cells be converted to in order to allow for gluconeogenesis to occur in the liver? What cycle is this?

A
  • Lactate

- Cori cycle

58
Q

How much ATP does the Cori Cycle require?

A
  • 4 ATP

- It is energetically expensive

59
Q

What are amino groups synthesized to in the liver through the Glucose-Alanine Cycle?

A

Urea

60
Q

What energy sources does an individual rely on during a sprint?

A
  • Creatine-phosphate
  • Myoglobin
  • Glycolysis
61
Q

What energy sources does an individual rely on during a marathon?

A

Glycogen stores supply energy for 1 to 3 hours

62
Q

How is the quantity of glycogen stores maximized for marathon running?

A

By carbohydrate loading (low glycemic index, high carbohydrate diet)

63
Q

Which amino acids is creatine phosphate derived from?

A

Glycine and arginine

64
Q

How does creatine phosphate provide energy?

A

The phosphate bonds store energy (high-energy bond)

65
Q

Where is myoglobin found? What is its function?

A
  • Found in muscle tissue

- Provides an oxygen store

66
Q

How does glycolysis provide energy when there is low oxygen?

A

Provides a small amount of energy, and produces lactate

67
Q

What are the effects of hypoglycemia?

A
  • May cause hypoglycemic coma

- Ex: insulin shock when an individual with diabetes consumes too much insulin

68
Q

What are the four major effects of hyperglycemia?

A
  • Dehydration
  • Glucosuria
  • Ketoacidosis
  • Cerebral edema (diabetic coma)
69
Q

How does the pancreas function as an exocrine gland?

A

Produces digestive enzymes, which are secreted to the small intestine through the pancreatic duct

70
Q

How does the pancreas function as an endocrine gland?

A

Produces hormones (insulin and glucagon), which are released in the blood stream

71
Q

Where are insulin- and glucagon-producing cells found? What kind of cells are they?

A
  • Islets of Langerhans
  • Insulin: B-cells
  • Glucagon: a-cells
72
Q

How is insulin synthesized?

A

• Expression of insulin gene in nucleus
• Transcription in mRNA
• Translation of single polypeptide chain of pre-proinsulin with no disulfide bonds
o Pre-proinsulin has a signaling sequence in the beginning
• Gets exported into ER for further processing, folding, cleaving signal peptide, creating disulfide bonds. When signal peptide is cleaved off it is now considered to be proinsulin
• Goes into Golgi in vesicle
• Vesicles store pro-insulin
• In vesicles there’s carboxypeptidase E which cleaves the c-peptide-> mature insulin, stored in the vesicle

73
Q

How many polypeptide chains is insulin composed of? How are they linked? Are they synthesized in multiple units?

A
  • 2 chains (or more)
  • Linked by disulfide bonds
  • Synthesized in a SINGLE unit
74
Q

Insulin is a metalloprotein. Which ions does it contain?

A

Zinc

75
Q

High blood glucose causes an increase of glucose entry within pancreatic cells through _______.

A

GLUT2

76
Q

Increased ATP production due to the entry of glucose in pancreatic cells causes what?

A
  • A potassium channel closes

- Depolarization of the cell

77
Q

What is the effect of depolarizing the pancreatic cell?

A

Opening of voltage-gated calcium channels

78
Q

Insulin secretion process (calcium related)

A
  • GLUT2 is the glucose transporter in the pancreas
  • With increase in glucose concentration in the cell, glycolysis and ATP production increases
  • This increases the ATP charge of the cell-> high ATP to ADP ratio
  • That closes the potassium channel – block potassium from exiting-> increase in intracellular potassium concentration
  • This cause cell membrane to depolarize
  • That causes calcium channel to open -> calcium influx
  • Calcium influx causes vesicles in the cell cytoplasm to fuse with the cell membrane and release the stored insulin- immediate response
  • More sustained response is caused by a calcium response element binding protein which goes to the nucleus and it stimulates the expression of the insulin gene
79
Q

Which processes do the signalling proteins of the insulin receptor function to increase?

A
  • Glycogen synthesis
  • Fat synthesis
  • Protein synthesis
  • Growth and gene expression
  • Amino acid influx
  • Glucose influx
80
Q

What is the cause of T1DM? What percentage of diabetics possess T1DM?

A
  • Cell-mediated autoimmune B-cell destruction, which causes a tremendous decrease in insulin production
  • Genetic predisposition
  • 5-10% of all cases of diabetes
81
Q

Which scientists discovered the protein insulin?

A
  • Charles Best
  • Rederick Banting
  • University of TOronto
82
Q

What is the peak age of onset of T1DM? What weight do individuals with T1DM have?

A
  • During puberty

- Normal or underweight

83
Q

What is urinalysis?

A

Measures glucose and ketone concentration in urine

84
Q

What is fasting plasma glucose concentration? What is the normal quantity and the diabetic quantity?

A
  • Diabetics: over 7.0 mM/L

- Normal: 5 mM/L

85
Q

What is oral glucose tolerance? What is the diabetic quantity?

A

Diabetics: over 11 mM/L

86
Q

What is the normal and diabetic range of glycated hemoglobin?

A
  • Normal: 3.5 to 5.5%

- Diabetics: over 6.5%

87
Q

Which test measures long-term glucose control? Why?

A
  • Glycated hemoglobin

- Because hemoglobin is a long-lived protein

88
Q

Apart from genetic predisposition, what could also cause T1DM?

A

Viral infection

89
Q

In T1DM, serum lab tests for antibodies to what?

A
  • Antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), a protein found in pancreatic cells
  • If the pancreatic cells are damaged, GAD would be found in the serum
90
Q

What is the treatment for T1DM?

A
  • Balance insulin shots (short- or long-acting) with their activity and food intake
  • Islet cell transplantation
91
Q

Which glycated hemoglobin value is measured to determine blood glucose concentrations?

A

Hemoglobin A1c

92
Q

What is the dichotomy in diabetes?

A
  • Excess of blood glucose in the circulatory system

- Deficit of blood glucose in many cells

93
Q

T1DM results in a hyper_______ and hyper______ state.

A

hyperosmolar, hyperdiabetic

94
Q

What is the long-term impact of T1DM on protein metabolism?

A
  • There is an inappropriately high breakdown of protein and amino acid oxidation
  • Translates into an increased requirement of protein
95
Q

What is ketoacidosis manifested by?

A
  • Ketones in the breath (acetone breath)
  • Ketones in the blood (ketonemia)
  • Ketones in the urine (ketonuria)
96
Q

Which ketone may be detected in the breath?

A

Acetone

97
Q

What transporters are present in the tubules of the kidney to absorb glucose from the lumen of the kidney to the blood?

A
  • SGLT2 (lumen to cell)

- GLUT2 (cell to blood)

98
Q

What is glucose spilling into the urine directly related to?

A
  • Concentration of glucose, and NOT insulin malfunctioning

- There is a maximal rate at which SGLT2 can transport glucose

99
Q

What is the maximal concentration at which SGLT2 can transport glucose in kidney tubules?

A

10 mM/L

100
Q

What are the effects of an inhibitor of SGLT2? What are the side effects?

A
  • More glucose lost in urine, which would lower blood glucose levels
  • Increased urination (glucose pulls more water)
  • Severe dehydration and excessive thirst
  • General yeast infections
101
Q

What are the acute issues of untreated diabetes?

A
  • Hyperglycemia

- Ketoacidosis

102
Q

What are the chronic issues of untreated diabetes?

A

Angiopathy (pathology of blood vessels)

103
Q

Which three microvascular issues arise with untreated diabetes?

A
  • Retinopathy (eyes)
  • Nephropathy (kidney)
  • Neuropathy (nerve)
  • Due to exposure to chronically high blood glucose
104
Q

What occurs in nephropathy due to untreated diabetes?

A
  • Exposure to chronically high blood glucose leads to the thickening of the glomerulus
  • The nephron becomes leaking, allowing larger molecules to pass through
  • Small proteins (e.g. albumins) leak out into the urine
105
Q

What must be controlled during nephropathy?

A

Blood pressure, to decrease pressure within the kidney

106
Q

What may nephropathy due to untreated diabetes result in?

A

Kidney failure, and the need for dialysis or a kidney transplant

107
Q

Where is neuropathy due to uncontrolled diabetes primarily seen? What is it characterized by?

A
  • Extremities, such as the feet

- Stinging pain

108
Q

What is a common way by which damage to blood vessels and tissues occur?

A
  • Accumulation of advanced glycation-end products (AGEs)
  • Ex: Hemoglobin A1c
  • Glucose bound to the amino acids disrupt the functions of the proteins
109
Q

What are potential physical complications due to untreated diabetes?

A
  • Blindness
  • Kidney failure and transplant
  • Nerve pain
  • Potential amputations
110
Q

Which tissues can synthesize glucose from glycogen, and export glucose to other tissues? Why?

A
  • The liver, kidney, and gut

- Because they possess glucose-6-phosphatase

Kris 307 (19 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions