2structure Flashcards
cerebrum
- largest part of the human brain
- The cerebrum is divided
into two hemispheres — the right hemisphere and the
left hemisphere. Bridging the two hemispheres is a bundle
of fibers called the corpus callosum. The two hemispheres
communicate with one another across the corpus callosum.
cerebral cortex
Covering the outermost layer of the cerebrum is a
sheet of tissue called the cerebral cortex. Because of its gray
color, the cerebral cortex is often referred to as gray matter.
The wrinkled appearance of the human brain also can be
attributed to characteristics of the cerebral cortex. More than
two-thirds of this layer is folded into grooves. The grooves
increase the brain’s surface area, allowing for inclusion of
many more neurons.
basal ganglia
a key part of the forebrain; cerebral nuclei deep in the cerebral cortex. The basal ganglia are a cluster of interconnected areas
located beneath the cortex in the depths of the cerebral
hemispheres.
midbrain
consists of two pairs of small hills called
colliculi. These collections of neurons play a critical role
in visual and auditory reflexes and in relaying this type of
information to the thalamus. The midbrain also has clusters
of neurons that regulate activity in widespread parts of the
central nervous system and are thought to be important for
reward mechanisms and mood.
cerebellum
like the cerebrum, also has two hemispheres
spinal cord
the extension of the brain through the
vertebral column
CNS
formed by the forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord. brain is protected by skull, spinal cord protected by vertebral column.
PNS
consists of nerves and small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia, a
term specifically used to describe structures in the PNS.
autonomic nervous system
made of neurons
connecting the CNS with internal organs. It is divided
into two parts: sympathetic and parasympathetic
cell body
contains the nucleus and cytoplasm
axon
axon extends
from the cell body and often gives rise to many smaller
branches before ending at nerve terminals. Many axons are
covered with a layered myelin sheath, which accelerates the
transmission of electrical signals along the axon. This sheath
is made by specialized cells called glia.
dendrites
extend
from the neuron cell body and receive messages from other
neurons
synapses
are the contact points where one neuron
communicates with another. The dendrites are covered with
synapses formed by the ends of axons from other neurons
where is ACh present?
This chemical is released
by neurons connected to voluntary muscles,
causing them to contract, and by neurons that
control the heartbeat. ACh is also a transmitter
in many regions of the brain. ACh is synthesized in axon terminals.
where are amino acids present?
widely distributed
throughout the body and the brain
where are catecholamines present?
Dopamine and norepinephrine are widely present in the
brain and peripheral nervous system.
where is serotonin present?
This neurotransmitter is present in the
brain and other tissues, particularly blood platelets and the lining of the idgestive tract.
where are peptides present?
peptides are synthesized in the cell body and greatly
outnumber the classical transmitters discussed earlier (ACh, catecholamines, serotonin, AAs)
where are trophic factors present?
These small proteins are made in
brain cells, released locally in the brain, and bind to receptors
expressed by specific neurons.
prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are a class of compounds made from lipids by an enzyme called cyclooxygenase. They are very small. Type of lipid messenger.
amyloid plaques
in people who died from Alzheimer’s, a small fibrillar peptide, termed beta amyloid, in the
spaces around synapses. These accumulations of tissue are
referred to as neuritic plaques.
tau tangles
in people who died from Alzheimer’s. neurofibrillary tangles, have been identified
as a modified form of the protein tau, which is found in the
cell bodies of neurons. the protein tau is rod-shaped.
primary brain tumors
arise within the brain
metastatic / secondary brain tumors
spread from
other parts of the body through the bloodstream and enter
the brain
cerebral edema
swelling as a result of excess accumulation of
water in the brain
lesions
imaging can reveal lesions
produced by the initial injury. These lesions can consist of
bleeding on the surface or within the brain as well as the
formation of contusions, or bruises. Once blood leaks from
vessels and comes into direct contact with brain tissue, it
causes localized pressure, reducing cerebral blood flow. The
blood itself also can be toxic to brain cells.
neuropathic pain
comes from injury to the nervous
system
diabetic neuropathy
damage to nerves in the body resulting from high blood sugar
levels
neuralgia
nerve pain or numbness, from viruses such
as shingles
nociceptor
the peripheral nerve
fiber that initially responds to the injury stimulus. The sensory fibers that respond to stimuli that damage
tissue and can cause pain
3 major cell types of the brain:
neurons; astrocytes, the cells
that nourish and protect neurons; and oligodendrocytes,
the cells that surround axons and allow them to conduct
their signals efficiently.
MRI image
Tissue that contains a lot of water and fat produces a
bright image; tissue that contains little or no water, such as
bone, appears black.
cornea
does about three-quarters of the focusing. vision begins with light passing thru the cornea.
lens
- adjusts the focus. light passes thru the lens after it passes thru the cornea
- The shape
of the lens is altered by the muscles just behind the iris so that
near or far objects can be brought into focus on the retina.
retina
a sheet of photoreceptors; part of CNS but located at the back of the eye. the cornea and lens combine to produce a clear image of the visual world on the retina. the image is reversed: objects to the right of the center project images to the left part of the retina
photoreceptors
gather visual information by absorbing
light and sending electrical signals to other retinal neurons
for initial processing and integration. The signals are then
sent via the optic nerve to other parts of brain, which
ultimately processes the image and allows us to see.
iris
The size of the pupil, which regulates how
much light enters the eye, is controlled by the iris.
lateral geniculate nucleus
an intermediate way station between the
retina and visual cortex
photoreceptor types
- rods: extremely sensitive to light and allow us to see in dim light,
but they do not convey color; 95 percent - Most of our vision, however, comes
from cones that work under most light conditions and are
responsible for acute detail and color vision.
photoreceptor subtypes
The human eye contains three types of cones (red,
green and blue), each sensitive to a different range of colors.
Because their sensitivities overlap, cones work in combination
to convey information about all visible colors.
parts of the retina
- central part: FOVEA, where light is focused; only contains red and green cones
- around fovea: MACULA, critical for reading and driving
receptive field
the
region of visual space providing input to a
visual neuron is called its receptive field.
3 retina layers
The rod and cone photoreceptors in the first layer send signals
to the middle layer (interneurons), which then relays signals
to the third layer, consisting of multiple different types of
ganglion cells, specialized neurons near the inner surface of the
retina. Each neuron in the middle and third layer typically receives input from many cells in the previous layer.
optic nerve
The axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.
primary visual cortex
a thin sheet of tissue (less
than one-tenth of an inch thick), a bit
larger than a half-dollar, which is located
in the occipital lobe in the back of the
brain. The primary visual cortex is densely packed with
cells in many layers, just as the retina is.
primary visual cortex layers
In its middle layer,
which receives messages from the lateral geniculate nucleus,
scientists have found responses similar to those seen in
the retina and in lateral geniculate cells. Cells above and
below this layer respond differently. They prefer stimuli in
the shape of bars or edges and those at a particular angle
(orientation). Further studies have shown that different
cells prefer edges at different angles or edges moving in a
particular direction.
oval window
stapes (stirrup) pushes on the oval window, separates the air-filled middle ear from the fluid-filled inner ear to produce pressure waves in the inner ear’s
snail-shaped cochlea.
cochlea
snail shaped; The separation of frequencies occurs in the
cochlea, which is tuned along its length to different frequencies,
so that a high note causes one region of the cochlea’s basilar
membrane to vibrate, while a lower note has the same effect on
a different region of the basilar membrane.
hair cells
Riding on the vibrating basilar membrane are hair cells
topped with microscopic bundles of hairlike stereocilia, which
are deflected by the overlying tectorial membrane. Hair cells
convert the mechanical vibration to electrical signals, which in
turn excite the auditory nerve. Because each
hair cell rides on a different part of the basilar membrane, each
responds to a different frequency.
auditory nerve
30,000 fibers. The auditory
nerve then carries the signals (electrical, converted by hair cells) to the brainstem. each nerve fiber
carries information about a different frequency to the brain.
taste buds
special structures embedded within small protuberances on the
tongue called papillae. Other taste buds are found in the back of
the mouth and on the palate. Each taste bud consists of 50 to 100
specialized sensory cells, which are stimulated by tastants such
as sugars, salts, or acids.
odorant
Airborne odor molecules, called odorants, are detected by specialized sensory neurons located in a small patch of mucus membrane lining the roof of the nose. Odorants stimulate receptor proteins found on hairlike cilia at the tips of the sensory cells, a process that initiates a neural response.
odor pcoess
each odorant’s pattern of activity is then
sent to the olfactory bulb, where other
neurons are activated to form a spatial map
of the odor. Neural activity created by this
stimulation passes to the primary olfactory
cortex at the back of the underside, or
orbital, part of the frontal lobe. Olfactory
information then passes to adjacent parts of the orbital cortex,
where the combination of odor and taste information helps
create the perception of flavor
skeletal muscles
Most muscles attach to points on the skeleton
and cross one or more joints. Each skeletal muscle is made up of thousands of
individual muscle fibers, and each muscle fiber is controlled
by one alpha motor neuron in either the brain or the
spinal cord.
motor unit
each single alpha motor neuron
controls many muscle fibers (ranging from a few to 100
or more); an alpha motor neuron and all the muscle
fibers it contains form a functional unit referred to as a
motor unit. Motor units are the critical link between the
brain and muscles.
reflexes
Perhaps the simplest and most fundamental movements
are reflexes. These are relatively fixed, automatic muscle
responses to particular stimul.
inhibitory interneurons
The
same sensory stimulus that causes the stretch reflex causes inactivation, or inhibition,
of the motor neurons of the antagonist muscles through
connecting neurons, called inhibitory interneurons, within the spinal cord.
gamma motor neurons
the sensitivity
of the muscle spindle organs is monitored by the brain
through a separate set of gamma motor neurons that
control the specialized muscle fibers and allow the brain to
fine-tune the system for different movement tasks.
Golgi tendon organs
Other
specialized sense organs in muscle tendons — the Golgi
tendon organs — detect the force applied by a contracting muscle, allowing the brain to sense and control the muscular
force exerted during movement.
flexion
source of potential injury
flexion withdrawal
that occurs when the bare foot encounters a sharp
object. The leg is immediately lifted from the source of
potential injury (flexion), but the opposite leg responds
with increased extension so that we can maintain our
balance. The latter event is called the crossed extension reflex.
motor cortex
One important brain area that is responsible for
voluntary movement is the motor cortex, which exerts
powerful control over the spinal cord, in part through
direct control of its alpha motor neurons. Some neurons
in the motor cortex appear to specify the coordinated
action of many muscles to produce the organized
movement of a limb to a particular point in space.
Others appear to control only two or three functionally
related muscles, such as those of the hand or arm, that
are important for finely tuned, skilled movement.
During the early stages of embryonic
development, three layers emerge
the endoderm, the
ectoderm, and the mesoderm. These layers undergo many
interactions to grow into organ, bone, muscle, skin, or
nerve tissue.
growth cone signaling molecules
These signaling
molecules include proteins with names such as netrin,
semaphorin, and ephrin. In most cases, these are families of
related molecules; for example, researchers have identified at
least fifteen semaphorins and at least nine ephrins.
cochlear implants
cochlear
implants introduced in infancy are most effective in restoring
hearing to the congenitally deaf.
