2nd Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Cognitive development
A
–Constructivism: Piaget
2
Q
Cognition
A
knowledge and the process of acquiring knowledge; not the same as learning
3
Q
<p>–Cognition includes:</p>
A
<p>––attention –perception –learning ––thinking –memory</p>
4
Q
<p>Piaget</p>
A
<p>–pioneer in cognitive development
–interested in how children gain knowledge
–in opposition to core
–knowledge theory"</p>
5
Q
<p>a constructivist approach</p>
A
<p>–children are seen as:
–– active
–– learning important lessons on their own
–– children are intrinsically motivated to learn</p>
6
Q
constructivist
A
depicts children as constructing knowledge for themselves
7
Q
what is intelligence?
A
a match b/w thought processes and one’s environment
8
Q
Schemes/ Schemas
A
organized pattern of thought, organized way of making sense of experience
9
Q
Cognitive Equilibrium
A
a match b/w thought processes and one’s environment
10
Q
Adaptation
A
occurs when there’s a mismatch b/w thought processes and one’s environment
11
Q
Organization
A
happens when there’s a mismatch between one’s thought processes and one’s environment
12
Q
<p>Sources of Continuity</p>
A
<p>Three processes working together to propel development:
–assimilation
–accommodation
–equilbration</p>
13
Q
assimilation
A
the process by which ppl translate information into a form the can understand
14
Q
accommodation
A
the process by which people adapt current knowledge structure in response to new experiences
15
Q
Equilibration
A
the process by which people balance assimilation and accommodation
16
Q
Developmental Sequence
A
–development occurs in leaps/ bounds is discontinuous
17
Q
<p>Piaget Stages</p>
A
<p>–sensorimotor (0–2): infancy
–preoperational (2–7): toddlers/ early childhood
<br></br>–concrete operational (7–11): middle childhoodish
<br></br>–formal operational (12+)</p>
18
Q
<p>Sensorimotor (0–2)</p>
A
<p>intelligence through motor activity
– getting to know the environment
<br></br>–reflexive creatures/ problem solvers
<br></br>–>primary goal: internalizing external behavior schemes
<br></br>––>obj permanence</p>
19
Q
object permanence
A
–primary goal/ main defining goal of sensorimotor period; knowing that objects continue to exist even when you cant see them
20
Q
A not B error
A
infant can watch and see where toys are hidden
21
Q
A not B error Explanation Piaget
A
infant 8–12 mons can’t hold image of object in mind
22
Q
A not B error Baillergeon’s explanation:
A
–habituation test with “impossible events”
–children can show surprise to impossible events as early as 3.5 mons but also due to shallow representation (basically due to inability to inhibit)
23
Q
Preoperational (2–7)
A
–Intelligence through symbols: the age at which they get symbolic representation (the use of one obj for another) –pretend play
–limitation: thinking done in non logical manner
––>ego centrism: in their mind the world fns only from their POV
–––> theory of mind/ False Belief Task
–>centration
–>conservation
24
Q
Centration
A
–the tendency to focus on a single perpetually striking feature of an object or event in order to draw conclusions
25
Conservation
–the idea that merely changing the appearance of objects doesn't change its key properties
26
Concrete–operational (7–11)
–able to use cognitive operations –able to use logic
–but no abstract thought
–no understanding that math actions can be reversed
27
Formal Operation (12+)
–cognitive development culminates in the ability to think abstractly –individuals can imagine alternative world and reason systematically about all possible outcomes to a scenario
–> only ~35% of hs grads can acquire this
–> you don't acquire things like alg w/o being taught
–> hypothetical deductive reasoning (systematic/ logical)
–> can generate hyps and systematically test them
28
Constructivism's Implication for education
–first to indicate children think in unique way from adults; have unique pattern for acquiring knowledge –childrne must interact with environment to gain knowledg
29
critique of Piaget's Theory
–stages not as concrete as described–infants and young children are more cognitively confident than given credit for
–>baillergeon's findings
–under states the contribution of the social world
–> what about influence of the ppl in power in their lives
–was vague about mechanisms that produce cognitive growth
30
sociocultural perspective of cog developmetn
focus on the contribution of other people and the surrounding culture to children's development
31
guided participation
when more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to engage in them at a higher level than they could manage on their own
32
vygotsky
–theory presents children as social being who intertwine w/ other ppl who are eager to help them gain skills/ understanding–development in continuous –humans unique in that they have natural inclination to teach each other and learn from one another
33
how do we go from a blob of reflexes to working ppl?
– Piaget: child's development precedes learning – Vygotsky: learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function" meaning social learning precedes development
34
How do children become more complex ?
– Need culture to change basic functions (attention, sensation, perception, memory) into higher mental functions; only done through culture –> Done using tools of intellectual adaptation that allow us to use basic mental processes more efficiently
35
guided participation
~made of scaffolding and stretching –doesn't vary by culture; only content children learn varies
–the content they learn impacts and changes the way children interact with people
–> comprised of scaffolding and stretching
36
Miller et al., 1995
how culture affects cognition –ramifications: linguistically impacts math skills
–>difference appears by age 4–5
37
How do we learn more from knowledgeable others?
–zone of proximal development ––>to find is reasonably intuitive process
~scaffold
~stretch
~these are the two meaningful components of guided participation
38
scaffolding:
–provide a temporary framework that supports children's thinking at a higher level than children can manage on own
39
stretching:
–children can perform one step above their assessed competence when under the guiding hand of the more experienced partner
40
internalization
component of social process –internalizing voice of more knowledgeable members of society"
41
private speech
–narrating what you're doing to yourself –>used to plan and regulate problem solving activities
–>vygotsky: through talking it through she's acquiring more knowledge about whatever she's doing
–>Piaget: egocentric speech
42
why is cooperative learning ideal?
–motivation to learn –requires explanation and working through conflicts
–more likely to use high level processing when working in a group and it's more fun!
43
info processing theory
–our brains process the information that comes in through our senses –to process: something comes in, we do something to it, and it is converted to output
44
how does information processing come through for children?
–arises from children gradually surmounting their processing limitations through increasingly efficient execution of basic processes –expanding your content knowledge
–acquiring new strategies as you go
45
according to info process theory
–Children'sbrains are not qualitatively different from adults; they're just constantlyundergoing cognitive changes. They're not fundamentally different in theirthinking – Constantly occurring and cognitive growth occurs in small increments
46
Memory System Components
–sensory –working
–long term
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sensory memory:
–sights,sounds, other sensations entering cognitive system and are held briefly in rawform in mind – Can hold moderate amount of information for 0.5–3 seconds
48
Working memory:
Aworkspace in which information from the environment and relevant knowledge arebrought together, attended to, and actively processed – Limited in capacity and duration
–can be trained
49
long term memory
–refers to information retained on an enduring basis –Anunlimited amount indefinitely
–Most developmental change
–quality varies
50
Modal Model: atkinson and shiffrin (1968)
explored how we decide what will go into working memory and then transfer to long term? –prefrontal plays a role
51
Sources of Learning and Memory Development
–processing speed –mental strategies
–content knowledge
52
processing speed
processing speed the speed with which children execute basic processes increases greatly over the course of childhood –contributed to by myelination and experience
53
Mental Strats
– Emerge between 5–8 years old when they take getting knowledge to start
54
Selective attention
intentionally focusing on information that is most relevant to current goal
55
Utilization Deficiency
phenomenon where initial uses of strategies do not improve memory as much as later uses
56
Rehearsal
the process of repeating information over and over to aid memory
57
overlapping waves theory
– children use a variety of approaches to solveproblems. As such, at any given time, child has several strategies to solvegiven problem. With more age and experience, the strategies that gives bestperformance becomes more prevalent and others die off. –> Suggests that children benefit by having a variety of strategies
––>SELECTION AND VARIATION LIKE DARWIN
58
content knowledge
Content knowledge: your memory span is affected by prior knowledge – The more you know, the more you can know
– They found the 10 year olds could remember ten on average where the adult remembered roughly six When they did another test unrelated to chess the adults did better.
59
Language
–unique to humans –humans communicate in many ways
–human are prepared for language (expectant)
–language is flexible
–>generative
–>inventive
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Generative:
product of human mind; something made as species
61
inventive
new words added constantly
62
psycholinguistics
study of structure and development of language: –phonology
–morphology
–semantics
–syntax
–pragmatics
63
phonology
–soundsystem of a language and the rules for combing these sounds to producemeaningful units of speech
64
Lieberman et al., 1957
–Acquired distinctiveness: webecome better at perceiving stimulus properties that are critical fordistinguishing native sounds – Acquired similarities: we become worse at perceiving properties that are not Everyone expects to have language when born but which one isn't known
–magnet effect: we are drawn to the soundsoccurring the most
65
Developmentof categorical perception of phonemes
–learning influences phonetic perception –newborns recognize all phonemes; adults do not
66
Kuhl et al., 2010
–when is sensitive period for phonemes –12 month old babies already know the differences based on their language
–> message: when you're talking to your infant, you might also be providing them with essential information for them to become accomplished readers some several yrs later
67
morphology
–specifieshow words are formed from sounds and their relationship to other words in thelanguage –e.g. walk or walked
68
semantics
–the expressed meaning of words and sentences –e.g. dog represents the four legged thing living inthe house that bark
–e.g. Johnhit Suzie vs John hugged Suzie
69
Syntax
–structure of language; the rulesspecifying how words and grammatical markers are to be combined to producemeaningful sentences –e.g. catdog bit vs dog bit cat vs cat bit dog
70
pragmatics
principles that underlie the effective and appropriate use of language insocial contexts –when to use polite forms
–how to take conversational turns
–how to adjust speech to listener
–when and how to ask questions
–offering and responding to expression of affection appropriately
71
the developmental trajectory of speech
–comprehension preceds production –the problem of "reference"
–attaching meaning to words
–>fast mapping
–>holophrastic period
–>telegraphic speech
72
fast mapping; carey and bartlett, 1978
–attaching meaning to words after hearing it applied to its referent after only a few times
73
fast mapping errors
–over extension: tendencyto use specific words to refer to broad class of objects –under extension: tendency to use a general word to refer tosmaller set of items
–over regularization: tendencyto overuse grammatical rules when they don't apply
74
holophrastic period
– infants utter one word that is mean torepresent an entire sentence –e.g. milk
75
telegraphic speech
–sentencesthat omit less meaningful parts of speech (18–24 months) –e.g. want milk
76
word learning
–toddlerswill experience a namingexplosion". Language grows because of object naming –primarily done through memorization
77
grammatical rules
wug test
78
Learning/ Exmpiricist
learning/ empiricist (nurture) – Learning Perspective– language is acquired through children imitating adult language through adult reinforcement of correct language usage
–evidence for:
–– Children may be reinforced for using language correctly
–– Imitation is important to the development of phonology and semantic
–– We talk like our parents
–evidence against:
––Littleevidence of differential reinforcement of grammatically correct & incorrectutterances
79
Nativist
– language acquisition device allows any child to develop an implicit understanding and infer the rules governing others' speech and to use these rules to produce language –Evidence for:
–– Only humans have shown ability to acquire knowledge of syntax without formal training
–– Evidence for sensitive periods for language development
–– Spontaneous creolization of pidgin language by second generation
–evidence against:
––sensitive period data shaky
––some non human primates are sensitive to some aspects of lang
––creolization may simply reflect human sensitivity to rules and an ability to learn codes than reflect innate knowledge
80
case study of extreme neglect: Genie
–feral child –unable to communicate
81
Face Processing
– thatcher effect: the first facial feature we learn to process is eyes –why study face?
–> available and rich source of information
–>developmental disabilities
–>insight into agents taht drive social behavior
–> important to humans
82
Tottenham, Leon and Casey, 2006; Face Advantage Effect
– Shown either a face or house flashing for 33msec –then asked if you saw a face or a house?
–>overall better at faces than houses
–developmentally ppl continue to become better at perceiving faces than houses
83
What info do faces provide us with
–identification –sex
–age
–emotion
–engagement
–ethnicity
–the ability to figure out all thes thinsg takes a long time and is a highly developed perceptual skill
84
neurodevelopment
– Need to investigate how the brain makes these changes and more information about how the brain works in general, How we become an expert in any skill –Understanding the neurodevelopment of face processing allows us to understand how experiences with the environment tune neural circuitry in a way that results in cortical specialization
85
Gross, et al., 1972
Open monkey's skull, put in electrodes, found that when they were shown faces, this part lit up
86
Kanwisher et al, 1997
– Fusiform face area: Cluster of neuronal cells that appear to activate when you look at the face
87
Kanwisher et al, 1998
– Parahippocampal Place Area: place that lit up when you look at landscapes/ places –suggests there's a modular view on organization ofoccipito–temporal cortex
88
Simion, Macchi– Cassa, and Colleagues (2002, 2003)
babies like facedness – They showed preference for the one with higher facial frequency on top
– Newborns prefer geometrical, non– face–like stimuli with more elements in the upper part over stimuli in which more elements are in the lower part.
89
Simion Valenza, Macchi Cassia,Turati & Umita, 2002
–Showingpreference for high facial frequency on top – Baby prefers upright face as opposed to upside down
–Ifyou mix the facial features but put eyes on top, babies will show a preferencefor top heavy
–Ifyou have an upright or top–heavy configuration babies show no preference
90
Face Experience
– No innate skill for face processing –Experience expectant process: you will see faces constantly
91
Parallels to language
Perceptual Narrowing Hypothesis •Early in postnatal life, we undergo a process of narrowing our expertise to a set of stimuli at the cost of perception for non–needed (non– present stimuli)
92
Other Species effect
• Pascalis & Bachevalier (1998) report that both non–human primates and humans are better at recognizing faces of their own species. –Pascalis, de Haan & Nelson (2002) directly tested theory of perceptual narrowing using the Visual Paired Comparison procedure in 6 and 9 month old infants and adults
93
Pascalis, de Haan & Nelson, 2002
– The nine month olds couldn't distinguish it but six month olds can. This tells us that is likely the window of when those synapses are pruned away.
94
Prosopagnosia
inability to tell difference infaces. Linked to Schizophrenia and their inability to keep thingsseparate from other things *conspiracy theories*
95
Prolonged Development of FaceRecognition Memory
–thetrajectory for the ability to recognize faces doesn't really reach its peakuntil puberty, maybe later – DIPS at similar times cause you're starting to go to school, or utilization deficiency
96
Modularity of Mind
Fodor (1983) •Domain specificity: only operates on specific inputs, specializedfor those inputs
•Innateness
•Informational encapsulation:wouldbe able to act independently without relying on any other region
•Fast operation:
–>Neural specificity
–>Automaticity
97
Gauthier et al., 2000
–Some researchers hypothesized it wasn’t about faces but perhaps about expertise
98
Gauthier et al., 1999: Greeble Experiment
Had different properties that would keep them individual –>trained them until they were experts
–>looked at diff between neural activity between experts and novices
––>Increased activation when greeble experts looked at greebles
~Reinforces that it's about expertise not about faces!
99
Aylward et al., 2005
– When we show faces vs houses to 8–10 year olds you don't show activation yet, between ages 12–14 we do – Means this is an emerging skill
– Focalizes in FFS area
100
BIG PICTURE OF FACE PROCESSING
– newborns have preference for face like features (specifically with high spacial frequency on top) – Draws child's attention to faces
– We become more and more experienced
– Then gain more and more expertise
– This wont focalize until 12–14 years old meaning it might be distributed across brain until that time
101
What was learned about faces become a special class of objects
–> Challenges modular view with support of distributed/ experiential model –>Vastexperience with faces that drives this skill across development"
