2nd exam Flashcards
becomes more complex in middle and late childhood.
self understanding
Their self-understanding also includes increasing reference to __________.
- They are more likely to distinguish
themselves from others in
comparative manner than in absolute terms.
social comparison
Children from _________of age increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and traits in contrast with the more concrete self-descriptions of younger children. ○ E.g. “I am smart.”
8 to 11 years
the social cognitive process involved in assuming the perspective of others and understanding their thoughts and feelings. ○ Improves in middle and late childhood.
perspective taking
Children during elementary school years become more likely to recognize social aspects of the _____.
- references to social groups in their self-descriptions
self
seeing situations in different ways
cognitive flexibility
is at work in perspective taking
executive function
two types of executive function
- cognitive inhibition
- cognitive flexibility
controlling one’s own thoughts to consider the perspective of others.
cognitive inhibition
children and adolescents with no good perspective taking skills are more likely to have difficulty in peer relations and engage in more ____ and _____
aggressive and oppositional behavior
At about 6-8 years old, children begin to understand that others may have a _______because some people have more access to information (Robert Selman, 1980).
different perspective
In the next several years, they begin to realize that each individual is aware of the _____ and that putting oneself in the other’s place is a way of judging the other person’s intentions, purposes, and actions.
other’s perspective
Perspective taking is important in determining development of either ____ or _____ attitudes and behavior.
prosocial or antisocial
domain-specific evaluations of the self. “I’m a hardworking student.”
self-concept
The terms _______ and ______ are often used interchangeably, but there is a difference between them.
self-esteem and self-concept
Children also become more ______ of others’ claims in middle and late childhood.
skeptical
global evaluations of the self; self-worth or self-image. “I feel like a good person.”
self-esteem
The quality of _______ in infancy and early childhood is the foundation of self esteem.
parent-child interaction
_____ may either reflect
accurate, justified
perceptions of one’s worth or an arrogant,
grandiose,
unwarranted sense of superiority over others.
High self-esteem
reflects perceptions that do not always match reality
self-esteem
___&&may reflect either an accurate perception of one’s
shortcomings or a distorted, pathological insecurity and inferiority.
is linked with overweight/obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency
low self-esteem
A ________ showed that self-esteem
predicted subsequent changes in social support, but social support did not predict subsequent changes in self-esteem (Marshall et al, 2014).
longitudinal study
Research in the aspects affecting self-esteem are much more _____ than experimental.
correlational
belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes.
self-efficacy
may avoid many learning (especially hard) tasks.
low self-efficacy
eagerly work at learning tasks; more likely to expend effort and persist longer at a learning task.
high self-efficacy
is a protective factor for children in low socioeconomic status conditions, reducing emotional problems
self-regulation
states that self-efficacy is a critical factor in whether or not students achieve.
Albert Bandura
increases from ages 4 to 10, with high self-control linked to lower deviant behavior.
○ Warm and parenting
positive predicts
developmental increase in _____.
self control
increased capacity for self-regulation is one of the most important aspects of the self in middle and late childhood
characterized by deliberate efforts to manage behavior, emotions, and thoughts, leading to increased social competence and achievement.
self-regulation
Appears during middle and late childhood in Erikson’s (1968) stages of development.
industry versus inferiority
More accurate appraisal of a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it.
Better at shifting their thoughts to something less stressful and at reframing or changing their perspective of a stressful situation.
By 10 years old, most children can use cognitive strategies to cope with stress. However, in families without support and characterized by turmoil/trauma, they may be so overwhelmed by stress that they do not use such strategies.
● Disasters can harm children’s development
and produce
adjustment problems.
coping with stress
justice and rules are fixed.
Heteronomous morality
they can anticipate and recall the
cognitive and
emotional aspects of events.
mental time travel
○ Increased
understand ability to complex
emotions. E.g pride and shame
○ Self-generated emotions and integrated with a sense
of responsibility.
improved emotional understanding
children at 10 years of age consider intentions, believe that rules can change, and are aware that punishment does not always follow wrongdoing.
autonomous morality
Sense of ____ increases
when children are encouraged to make things.
industry
Sense of _____ develops when discouraged.
inferiority
Children further develop their
understanding and self-regulation of emotion in middle and late childhood.
● Preschoolers become more adept at talking about their own and others’ emotions.
● They show a growing awareness of the need to control and manage their emotions to meet social standards.
emotional development
- Reassure children of their safety and security.
- Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them.
- Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings and reassure them that such feelings are normal.
- Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma.
- Help children make sense of what happened, keeping in mind that children may misunderstand what took place.
caring for children after a disaster
the more severe the disaster/trauma (dose), the worse the adaptation and
adjustment (response).
dose-response effect
The lowest level of moral reasoning in this theory.
○ Children interpret good and bad using external rewards and punishments; described as “What’s in it for me?”
○ Used before age 9.
Kohlberg’s
Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning
Individuals abide by certain
standards
(internal), but they are the standards of others, such as parents of the laws of society
Used by early adolescence.
Kohlberg’s Level 2:
Conventional Reasoning
Third and highest level. ○ Morality is internal. ○ Used by early adulthood but only by a small number of individuals.
Kohlberg’s Level 3:
Postconventional Reasoning
conventional rules established by social consensus to control behavior and maintain the social system.
Social conventional reasoning
states that there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning, including moral, social conventional, and personal domains. ● These domains emerge from their attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience.
- These domains emerge from their attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience
Domain theory of moral development
Proposed by ______ (1958, 1986).
Used moral dilemma to
investigate the nature of moral thought.
● The levels occur in a sequence and are age-related.
- Lawrence Kohlberg
- Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Development
focuses on ethical
issues and rules of morality. They are obligatory, widely accepted, and somewhat impersonal.
moral reasoning
concept of justice
moral judgment
concepts of social organization
Social conventional
judgments
Unlike Kohlberg’s conventional
view, social reasoning advocates
argue that social conventions are not lower than _____. They are a distinct domain of reasoning that needs to be separated from the moral thread.
postconventional reasoning
Early years: ____ is motivated by social play or imitation, not empathy.
sharing
___: sharing is a sense of obligation produced by a combination
of awareness and empathic adult
encouragement, but they still prioritize themselves.
4 years old
Study of ______emphasizes behavioral aspects of moral development instead of development of moral reasoning.
● Children engage in immoral, antisocial acts, but also display prosocial moral behavior.
prosocial behavior
(6 years): sharing is more complex, reflecting ideas of fairness and justice.
middle and late childhood
subjected to the
child or adolescent’s
independent decision making and personal discretion. They are not governed by moral reasoning or social norms.
personal issues
harming someone by manipulating
a
relationship spreading rumors).
(e.g. malicious
○ Increases in middle and late childhood.
relational aggression
formed when moral notions and commitments are central to the individuals’ lives. ○ Violating their moral commitment places risk on the integrity of the self.
moral identity
the willpower, desire, and integrity to stand up to
pressure, distractions overcome and
disappointments, and behave morally. ○ Display of moral virtues like honesty, compassion, dependability, loyalty, and conscientiousness.
moral character
Girls and women have slightly better verbal skills than boys and men.
● No gender differences in math skills, however, girls have more negative math
attitudes. Additionally, parents and
teachers’ expectancies for math competence are often in favor of boys.
● Boys have better visuospatial skills (small difference).
cognitive development
Broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males.
● In the past, boys were expected to be independent, aggressive, and powerful. Girls were expected to be dependent, nurturing, and uninterested in power.
gender stereotypes
Behavior and traits vary by situation _____
● Female stereotypes state that females are more likely to help children with personal problems and caregiving. Men, however, are more likely to help in dangerous or competence-based situations.
gender context
people who have lived exemplary moral lives. ○ Their moral personality, identity, characters, and set of virtues reflect moral excellence
and commitment.
studying ______ helps understand the ideal endpoint of moral development and how they got there
moral exemplars
Women have about twice the body fat of men, mostly concentrated
around breasts and hips.
● Fat is more likely to go to the abdomen in men.
● Males grow to be 10% taller than females on average.
● Females have longer life
expectancy and are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders.
● Males have twice the risk of coronary disease.
● Female brains are approx. 10% smaller than male brains, but they have more folds.
● An area of the parietal lobe that functions in visuospatial skills is larger in males.
● Areas of the brain involved in emotional expression show more metabolic activity in females.
gender development
Preschool children display a gender identity and gender-typed behavior that reflects biological, cognitive, and social influences.
gender
● Boys are more physically aggressive than girls. ○ Attributed
to both
biological factors (heredity and
hormones) environmental and factors (cultural expectations,
adult and peer models, social agents that reward aggression in boys but punish in girls).
● Verbal aggression is a bit more pronounced in girls.
● Relational aggression comprises a greater percentage of girls’ overall aggression compared to boys.
socioemotional development
ability to rotate objects mentally and to determine what they would look like when rotated.
Visuospatial skills
Instead of spankings or coercive control, parents deprive their children of things they like, appeal to the child’s self-esteem, making the child feel guilty of their actions, or make the child realize the responsibility of
their actions.
Physical discipline is lessened as children enter elementary school.
The value _____place on education affects a child’s academic performance.
● ____ also influence the child’s interest in doing out-of-school activities like
sports, music, painting, etc.
parents
Divorce and remarriage have become common in the U.S., with many stepfamilies
including
elementary and secondary school children.
Remarriages involving children have increased and the rate of divorce occurs 10% more often in remarriages
than first marriage.
● About half of children with divorced parents will have a stepparent in 4 years.
● Remarried couples face
challenges as they define and strengthen their relationship and renegotiate
parent-child relationships while
establishing stepparent-stepchild and
stepsibling relationships.
● Most stepfamilies happen due to divorce instead of death
stepfamilies
Parents spend less time parenting children as they move from middle to late childhood
(ages 5-12).
Having positive relationships with peers
is especially
important in middle and late childhood.
● Positive interactions, resolving conflicts,
and friendships quality lead to better
relationships in adolescence and adulthood.
● Popularity and low aggression at age 8 are linked to higher occupational status at age 48.
● Low peer status in childhood increases the probability of unemployment and mental health issues in adulthood.
peers
Frequently chosen as best friends, rarely disliked.
popular children
Reciprocity becomes crucial in peer
interactions during elementary school years.
● Time spent in social interaction with peers increases from about 10% at age 2 to over 30% in middle and late childhood.
● Peer group size increases as children grow, with less adult supervision in interactions.
● Same-sex peer group
preference increases until around age 12.
developmental changes
how much children are liked or disliked by their peer group. It is measured by asking children to rate or name their most and least liked peers.
sociometric status
In middle and late childhood, attachment becomes more sophisticated
As a child’s social worlds expand, they typically spend less time with their parents.
Children with secure attachment have lower levels of internalized symptoms, anxiety, and depression.
Secure attachment is also linked with the child having higher levels of emotion regulation and identifying different emotions.
attachment in families
Rarely chosen as best friends but not disliked.
neglected children
Receive an average number of positive and negative ratings.
average children
Rarely chosen as best friends and actively disliked.
rejected children
Frequently chosen as best friends but also disliked.
controversial children
have strong social skills: ● Reinforce others,
listen well,
communicate openly, control emotions, show concern, and have self-confidence without being conceited.
popular children
often struggle with social adjustment and are linked to conduct problems.
rejected children
They disrupt activities in class and group play.
impulsivity and attention problems
They anger easily and struggle to calm down.
emotional reactivity
They have difficulty
making maintaining friendships.
lack of social skills
using ____ and ____ to improve responses
role playing and hypothetical scenarios
Watching ______ to learn appropriate behavior.
videotaped peer interactions
refers to thoughts about social
interactions, such as interpreting others’ intentions and
behaviors.
social cognition
● Attend to social cues
● Attribute intent by interpreting social cues
● Establish social goals
● Access behavioral scripts from memory
and generate problem-solving strategies
● Evaluate the likely effectiveness of strategies and make decisions
● Enact behavior.
Six Steps in Processing Information About Children’s Social World
● More likely to perceive ambiguous actions as hostile.
● Process social cues quickly but inefficiently
and impulsively.
● Less likely to self-evaluate their behavior, making them more prone to aggression.
Social Cognitive Differences in Aggressive Boy
● Helps children navigate social situations, make friends, and maintain relationships.
● Knowing how to initiate social bonds and follow social scripts improves peer acceptance.
● Example: Giving compliments can help a child gain friends, even if the peer is indifferent at first.
Importance of Social Knowledge for Peer Relationships
● Defined as verbal/physical
behavior targeting less powerful individuals.
● Most common form: belittling about looks or speech.
● Boys are more likely to be bullies, while victims vary by gender.
bullying
Loneliness, difficulty making friends, depression, suicidal ideation.
victims
More likely to have low grades, smoke, and drink alcohol.
bullies
Influences include poverty, family, school, and peer groups
Social Context of Bully
(warmth, communication)
reduces likelihood.
positive parenting
(abuse, neglect) increases risk.
negative parenting
seek social status and may not be rejected by peers.
bullies
offers excitement, amusement, and interesting experiences
stimulation
is linked to worse physical and mental health.
peer victimization
● Increasing concern due to online harassment.
● Linked to loneliness, low self-esteem, fewer friendships.
● Stronger link to suicidal ideation than traditional bullying.
● Cyberbullies often engage in traditional bullying as well.
cyberbullying
are crucial for
children’s growth, similar to adult friendships.
sex,
____ tend to be similar in age, school attitudes, and
race, aspirations.
● Provide cognitive and emotional
benefits,
fostering self-esteem and well-being.
Friends
a familiar partner for play and collaboration
companionship
Provides resources and assistance.
physical support
Encourages self-worth and self-confidence.
ego support
Helps children assess themselves in relation to others.
social comparison
Builds trust and emotional closeness (develops more in adolescence).
affection and intimacy
● Developmentally beneficial when friends are socially skilled and supportive.
● Conflict-ridden or coercive friendships can be harmful.
● Aggressive children are more likely to have aggressive friends.
Quality & Impact of Friendships
● Positive friendships contribute to emotional well-being.
● Academically-oriented friends increase the likelihood of school success.
Friendship & Academic Success
is a learner-centered method where students
actively
knowledge guidance.
with build teacher
constructivist approach
Advocates
of standardized
testing argue it improves student performance,
sets high
expectations, and identifies struggling schools and educators.
● Critics claim it oversimplifies student
progress, neglects
creativity and critical thinking, and leads to excessive “teaching to the test.”
No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
State Standards, introduced in 2009, aim to establish rigorous, consistent learning goals across states.
● But while supporters praise their clarity, critics argue they are too rigid and federally driven.
Common Core
enacted in 2015, replaced No Child Left Behind while maintaining standardized testing with more state flexibility.
● It reduces the accountability of tests while also allowing states to have more flexible accountability and academic standards.
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)
is a transitional period linking childhood & adulthood. It is when adolescents try on different identities to find their own as they face dramatic biological changes, new experiences, and new developmental tasks
adolescence
➢ It is influenced by genetic/biological, & environmental/social factors.
➢ Relationships with parents change, and peer interactions become more intimate.
➢ Dating and sexual exploration may begin during this time.
➢ Thoughts become more abstract & idealistic, with a heightened interest in their body image.
nature of adolescence
A brain-neuroendocrine process primarily in early adolescence that stimulates rapid physical changes.
➢ It ends long before adolescence does for most people.
➢ Pinpointing the exact beginning & end of puberty is difficult.
puberty
Increase in penis and testicle size, straight pubic hair, minor voice change, first ejaculation, kinky pubic hair, maximum growth in height and weight, armpit hair, more detectable voice changes, facial hair.
male pubertal characteristics
Breast enlargement or pubic hair, armpit hair, increase in
Female Pubertal Characteristics:
(first menstruation) occurs relatively late. ■ Menstrual cycles may be irregular initially, and ovulation may not occur for a year or two after menarche.
menarche
No comparable voice change to males occurs. Breasts become more fully rounded by the end of puberty.
read
Earlier pubertal onset in girls is linked to shorter height at ___. Earlier growth spurt and slower progression in boys are linked to taller height at___
18
➢ These are powerful chemicals secreted by endocrine glands.
➢ Drives pubertal changes. ➢ Can be affected by behavior & moods through stress, eating patterns, exercise, sexual activity, tension, & depression.
hormones
➢ A type of estrogen.
➢ Associated with breast, uterine, and skeletal development in girls.
➢ Increases eightfold in girls & twofold in boys. ➢ Dominates female pubertal development.
estradiol
➢ Associated with genital development, increased height, & voice deepening in boys.
➢ Increases eighteenfold in boys & twofold in girls during puberty.
➢ Dominates male pubertal development.
testostorone
Hormonal effects alone do not account for adolescent development. Social factors can be better predictors of some outcomes like depression and anger in girls
read
● Adolescents are universally preoccupied with their bodies. Especially acute in early adolescence.
●
Increased internet and social media use is linked to body dissatisfaction, particularly in females. ○ Girls generally have more negative body images than boys throughout puberty.
● Media portrayals of thinness and increased body fat in girls during puberty may contribute.
● Body images tend to become more positive for both genders from early to late adolescence.
body image
in early high school may have a more negative body image
late-maturing boys
perceive themselves more positively and have better peer relations during adolescence, but late-maturing boys in their thirties may have a stronger sense of identity.
It is generally advantageous for boys to be
early maturers during adolescence.
early maturing boys
in 6th grade may have greater figure satisfaction, but by 10th grade, late-maturing girls may be more satisfied as they fit the current ideal of tall and thin
○ ________ increases girls’ vulnerability to problems like:
■ Smoking, drinking, depression, eating disorders, delinquency, early independence struggles, older friends, earlier dating, & sexual experiences.
Early-maturing girls
is linked to a higher incidence of distress, fear, and externalizing disorders in females
■ Tend to have earlier and more unstable sexual relationships and are at higher risk for abuse in dating.
Early menarche (before 11)
the brain’s ability to modify its structure and function in response to specific experiences and environmental contexts, enabling it to adapt and learn effectively
Context-induced plasticity
thickens, to improve information processing.
Corpus Callosum
for emotions & rewards. ○ Matures earlier & is almost fully developed in early adolescence
limbic system
for reasoning,
decision-making, and self-control. ○ Doesn’t fully mature until emerging adulthood (18 to 25; or later). ○ Adolescents may have
strong
emotions but lack a fully developed prefrontal cortex to control them.
Prefrontal Cortex
mainly involved in emotions and fear.
amygdala
➢ It is a bridge between the asexual child and the sexual adult. It serves as a time of sexual exploration,
fantasies, & incorporating sexuality into identity.
➢ Adolescents have high curiosity about sexual attractiveness, sexual activity, and their sexual future. ○ Most eventually develop a mature sexual
identity, though they may
experience confusion.
adolescence sexuality
Is a multifaceted and lengthy process involving managing sexual feelings, developing intimacy, & regulating sexual behavior.
sexual identity
is a normal aspect of adolescent development.
sexual arousal
Includes activities, interests, behavior styles, and ______ (same-sex, other-sex, or both attractions).
sexual orientation
_____ activity is linked to risky behaviors like drug use, delinquency, and school problems.
●
Intercourse before age 14 is linked to more sexual partners, oral/anal sex, negative health behaviors, and antisocial behavior at 18.
● Peer, school, sports, and religious contexts also influence sexual risk-taking.
○ Association with more deviant peers in early adolescence predicts more sexual partners at 16.
○ _____ debut (before 13) is associated with sexual risk-taking, substance use, violent victimization, and suicidal thoughts/attempts in both sexual minority and heterosexual youth.
Early sexual
is very common among US adolescents. ○ The order of initiating sex (oral-genital vs. vaginal) may have consequences for sexual health, with those initiating oral sex first having lower teen pregnancy rates
oral sex
● Contracted through sexual contact.
● The risk of acquiring___ from a single unprotected sex act with an infected partner can be high
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)
● Too many sexually active adolescents don’t use _____, use them inconsistently, or use less effective methods.
● A significant percentage of sexually active adolescents did not use any contraception at the last intercourse.
contraceptive use
● A problematic outcome requiring major reduction efforts.
adolescent pregnancy
Leading medical organizations recommend _______ like IUDs and implants due to lower failure rates and higher effectiveness in preventing unwanted pregnancy.
long-acting reversible contraception (LARC)
Adolescence is a ___ in the adoption of behaviors relevant to health
critical juncture
creates health risks for both mother and baby (low birth weight, neurological problems, childhood illness). ○ Children of adolescent mothers may have lower academic achievement.
○ Adolescent mothers are more likely to be depressed and drop out of school, facing
long-term economic disadvantages.
○ Teenage fathers are also more likely to be unemployed.
adolescent pregnancy
● Non-Latino White boys exercise the most. ● African American and Latino girls exercise the least .
● Benefits of Exercise
ethnic differences
● Physical activity declines as adolescents grow older .
● A national study revealed that physical activity increases until age 13 but then declines through age 18 .
exercise trends
● Memory is the most improved cognitive factor due to exercise.
cognitive benefits
● Lower obesity rates ● Reduced triglyceride levels ● Lower blood pressure ● Lower incidence of type II diabetes
positive physical effects
● Fewer depressive symptoms . ● High-intensity exercise programs reduce depression and improve mood .
psychological benefits
is crucial for adolescent well-being .
● Only 27% of U.S. adolescents get eight or more hours of ____ on an average school night .
● The percentage of adolescents getting enough ______ decreases with age .
sleep
daytime sleepiness
lower grades
higher school absences
increased alcohol and marijuana use at age 16
less sleep
● Higher anxiety
● More emotional and peer problems
● Higher suicidal ideation
● A study found that students who sacrificed sleep to study had difficulty understanding lessons the next day .
short sleep duration
● Early school start times lead to grogginess, poor attention, and lower test performance .
● A study found that starting school 30 minutes later improved sleep, alertness, mood, and health .
Impact of School Start Times
● Electronic media use at night delays sleep onset .
● Sleeping near small screens (smartphones, TVs) and high screen time reduce sleep duration .
● Caffeine intake delays sleep onset and increases daytime sleepiness .
● Biological clock shifts cause older
adolescents to fall asleep later due to a delay in melatonin release .
Reasons for Sleep Deprivation
● The three leading causes of death in adolescence are__________
unintentional
injuries, homicide, and suicide.
● Almost half of adolescent deaths (ages 15–24) result from unintentional
injuries, mainly motor vehicle accidents .
● Risky driving habits (speeding, tailgating, drunk driving) are major factors .
●
In 50% of fatal accidents, the adolescent driver had a blood alcohol level of 0.10%, which is twice the legal limit in some states .
● Alcohol mixed with energy drinks increases intoxication and leads to higher rates of drunk driving .
Unintentional Injuries
● is the second leading cause of death.
● It is particularly high among African American male adolescents .
homicide
● Adolescent _____rates have tripled since the 1950s .
accounts for: ○ 6% of deaths in the 10–14 age group. ○ 12% of deaths in the 15–19 age group .
suicide
● Significant decline in adolescent alcohol use: ○ Eighth-graders drinking alcohol in the last 30 days: 26% in 1996 → 8% in 2017.
○ Tenth-graders: 39% in 2001 → 19.7% in 2017.
○ High school seniors: 72% in 1980 → 33.2% in 2017 .
● Binge drinking (5 or more drinks in a row in the last 2 weeks): ○ Declined from 41% in 1980 → 19.1% in 2015 .
○ Males binge drink more than females .
● Drunk driving risk: ○ 30% of high school seniors had been in a vehicle with a drugged or drunk driver in the past two weeks .
○ 1 in 4 twelfth-graders consumed alcohol mixed with energy drinks, increasing unsafe driving .
alcohol
➢ Drug use among U.S. secondary school students declined in the 1980s, increased in the early 1990s, declined again in the early 2000s, and increased after 2006 due to rising marijuana use.
➢ Marijuana is the most widely used illicit drug by adolescents .
➢ The U.S. has one of the highest adolescent drug use rates among industrialized nations .
➢ With increased marijuana legalization, youth have greater access to the drug .
SUBSTANCE USE AND ABUSE
➢ Cigarette smoking peaked in 1996 and has declined since .
Smoking rates in the last 30 days: ○ Twelfth-graders: 9.7% in 2017 (down 8% from 2011).
○ Tenth-graders: 5.0%. ○ Eighth-graders: 1.9% .
Perception shift: ○ More adolescents disapprove of smoking, prefer to date non-smokers, and perceive it as dangerous .
E-cigarettes (Vaping): ● Higher usage than cigarettes among adolescents .
●
In 2017, vaping nicotine: ○ Twelfth-graders: 11%. ○ Tenth-graders: 8.2%. ○ Eighth-graders: 3.5% .
● Adolescents who use e-cigarettes are at an increased risk of smoking cigarettes later .
smoking
➢ Early substance use leads to a higher risk of addiction in adulthood .
➢ Drinking before age 11 → higher risk of alcohol dependence .
➢ Early drinking and rapid progression to intoxication → linked to drinking problems in high school .
The Roles of Development, Parents, Peers, and Education
➢ positive parent relationships reduce substance use .
➢ Parental monitoring lowers the risk of polysubstance use .
➢ Family dinners reduce substance abuse risk .
Parental influence
Friends’ alcohol use has achievement reduces the likelihood of developing drug problems .
Education as a protective factor:
An eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation.
● Weight below 85% of what is considered normal.
●
Intense fear of gaining weight that does not decrease with weight loss.
● Distorted body image.
● Amenorrhea (lack of menstruation) for girls.
anorexia nervosa
➢ the final stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, which typically begins around age 12 and is characterized by the ability to think abstractly, logically, and hypothetically, allowing
for complex reasoning and problem-solving
formal operational stage
➢ An eating disorder in which the individual consistently follows a binge-and-purge pattern.
● Binge followed by self-induced vomiting or laxative use.
● Occurs at least twice a week for three months.
● Preoccupation with food and fear of weight gain.
➔ Unlike anorexics, bulimics typically fall within a normal weight range, making it harder to detect.
➔ 90% of bulimics are women, with most cases starting in late adolescence or early adulthood.
➔ Cognitive behavior therapy has been effective in treating bulimia.
bulimia nervosa
- Piaget’s formal operational concept is that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, about ways to solve problems.
- Example: “If I stay up late, will I still do well on my exam?” Hypothesis: If I study all night, I will
remember more
information and perform better on the test. Deduction:
● If this is true, then I should feel prepared and get a high score
if false, i might feel too tired and perform worse despite studying
Testing: They either pull an all-nighter and see the results or consider past experiences to decide if sleep deprivation affects performance.
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
➢ Founder of the present field of cognitive development
➢ Developed concepts such as assimilation, accommodation,
object permanence, egocentrism, conservation, and others
➢ Brought the current vision of children as active, constructive thinkers ○ He was known for his research on children’s cognitive development.
○ “…a genius when it came to observing children.”
jean piaget (1896-1980)
➢ Heightened self-consciousness of
adolescents
adolescent egocentrism
➢ An American child psychologist and author ➢ Pointed out that adolescent egocentrism has two key components.
David Elkind (1976)
- Adolescents’ belief that others are as interested in them as they are.
- As well as attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and “on stage.”
- Imaginary Audience
- The part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent’s sense of uniqueness and invincibility (or invulnerability)
- Personal Fable
➢ Identified some important characteristics of adolescents’
information processing and
thinking: ○ Considerable variation in cognitive functioning
○ Improvement of executive function
Deanna Kuhn (2009)
○ Effective control of thinking in a number of areas, including controlling attention, reducing interfering
thoughts, and being cognitively flexible.
○
Increases during middle and late childhood and continues to increase in
adolescence adulthood.
○ 2 types of distractions that can interfere with attention: external environment
and intrusive distractions
Cognitive Control
involves being
aware that options and alternatives are available and being motivated to adapt to the situation
cognitive flexibility
○ Increased during adolescence ○
Influenced by emotions, which may overwhelm decision-making ability, and social context, which involves substances and other temptations, and the presence of peers.
decision making
includes having
confidence in their ability to adapt their thinking to a particular situation.
self-efficacy
○ States that decision-making is influenced by 2 systems - “verbatim analytical (literal and precise) and gist-based intuition (simple
bottom-line meaning) - which operate in parallel
In this model, gist-based intuition benefits adolescent decision-making more than analytical thinking does.
Fuzzy-trace theory dual-process model
○ Adolescence:
an important
transitional period in the development of critical thinking ■ Critical thinking increases with age, but self-serving biases still dominate in many adolescents’ reasoning
Critical Thinking
include literacy and math skills; if not developed during childhood, critical-thinking skills are unlikely to mature in adolescence
fundamental skills
● School satisfaction declines in 7th grade (Hirsch & Rapkin, 1987).
● Students feel less committed to school and like teachers less.
● Decline in satisfaction occurs regardless of academic success, ○ Factors ease the transition: ■ Positive friendships. ■ Team-oriented schools where small groups of students take classes together (Hawkins & Berndt, 1985)
Challenges of the Transition
○ Puberty and body image concerns. ○ Development of formal operational thought and social cognition
individual changes
● Schools are massive and impersonal. ● Curriculum is irrelevant to students. ● Few students trust adults in school. ● Limited access to health care and counseling.
Carnegie Corporation (1989) findings:
○ Shift to larger, more impersonal structure.
○ Moving from one teacher to multiple teachers.
○ Exposure to a more diverse peer group.
○ Greater focus on achievement and performance
School environment changes:
The circumstance of moving from the top position in elementary school to the lowest position in middle or junior high school.
Top-dog phenomenon
★ Feeling more mature and independent. ★ More subject choices and academic challenges.
★ Increased opportunities to form friendships. ★ Greater freedom from parental supervision.
Positive Aspects of the Transition
● Criticisms of Middle and Junior High Schools ○ Schools fail to address individual differences
in biological and psychological development.
EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS FOR YOUNG ADOLESCENTS
● Smaller communities within schools to reduce impersonal nature.
● Lower student-to-counselor ratio (10:1 instead of hundreds-to-1).
● Increased parent and community involvement.
● New curriculum that is more engaging and relevant.
● Flexible, interdisciplinary teaching methods.
● More in-school health and fitness programs.
● Better access to public health care for students in need.
Recommendations for Improvement
Even 20 years later, middle schools still require major
redesigns to improve adolescent
education (Roeser, 2016; Wigfield & others, 2015).
NEED FOR CONTINUED REFORMS
➢ A number of strategies have been proposed for improving U.S. high schools, including raising expectations and providing better support.
➢ The overall high school dropout rate declined considerably in the last half of the twentieth century, but the dropout rates among Latino and Native American youth remain very high.
high school
➢ Promotes social responsibility and community service through activities like tutoring, helping older adults, hospital work, child care assistance, or community cleanup.
➢ A goal is to make adolescents less
self-centered and more motivated to help others. It is more effective when students have some choice in activities and opportunities for reflection.
➢ Benefits include higher grades, increased goal setting, higher self-esteem, and a greater sense of making a difference. Volunteer activities can also provide opportunities to explore and reason about moral issues.
service learning
➢ Participation in _____is associated with positive academic and psychological outcomes.
➢ Adolescents benefit from participating in a variety of _____.
➢ The quality of the activities also matters.
extracurricular activities
● the overall way we evaluate ourselves
self-esteem
accurate, justified perceptions of one’s worth as a person and one’s successes and accomplishments, but it can also indicate an arrogant, grandiose, unwarranted sense of superiority over others.
high self-esteem
Girls’ ____dropped more than boys’ during this time because of negative body image and social expectations
●____ reflects perceptions that do not always match reality
self-esteem
refers to a self-centered and self-concerned approach toward others.
narcissism
accurate perception of one’s shortcomings or a distorted, even pathological insecurity and inferiority.
low self-esteem
● self-portrait that is composed of many pieces and domains: ○ vocational/career identity ○ political identity ○ religious identity ○ relationship identity ○ achievement and intellectual identity ○ sexual identity ○ cultural/ethnic identity ○ interests, personality, physical identity
identity
ERIKSON’S VIEW ● Fifth developmental stage
Identity V.S. Identity Confusion
○ The search for an identity during adolescence is aided by this
○ the gap between childhood security and adult autonomy.
Psychosocial Moratorium
○ Adolescents who do not successfully resolve identity crisis
○ 2 different paths: ■ withdrawing and isolating themselves
■ immerse themselves in the world of peers and lose their identity
identity confusion
● who studied Erikson’s ideas, suggested 4 identity statuses or ways of resolving the identity crisis
JAMES MARICA
based on the existence or extent of their crisis or commitment
identity status
period of identity development during which the adolescent is exploring alternatives.
crisis
part of identity development in which adolescents show a personal investment in identity.
commitment
4 identity status
identity diffusion
identity foreclosure
identity moratorium
identity achievement
status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments.
Identity Diffusion
status of individuals who have made a commitment but not experienced a crisis.
Identity Foreclosure
status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined
Identity Moratorium
stories people construct and tell about themselves to define who they are for themselves and others.
Narrative Approach
Many individuals who develop positive identities follow what are called “____” cycles
MAMA
status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and made a commitment.
Identity Achievement
● Does not produce enough depth in understanding identity development
● One way that researchers are now examining identity changes in depth is to use a narrative approach.
Critics of identity status approach:
MAMA” cycles
(moratorium-achievement-moratorium-achievement)
Identity development is influenced by
culture and ethnicity
● key changes in identity are more likely to take place in emerging adulthood or later than during adolescence
● Resolution of the identity issue during adolescence and emerging adulthood does not mean that identity will be stable throughout the remainder of life
EMERGING ADULTHOOD AND BEYOND
Enduring and basic aspects of the self that include a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes and feelings related to that membership.
ethnic identity
are likely to be secure in their identities and unlikely to change much; they may or may not develop a new identity.
first-generation immigrants
more likely to think of themselves as “American,” possibly because citizenship is granted at birth.
second-generation immigrants
Most adolescents from ethnic minority groups develop a ____. ○ identify in some ways with their ethnic group and in other ways with the majority culture
bicultural identity
historical, contextual, and political factors play a bigger role in how they keep their ethnic identity
third and later generations
issues are important to many adolescents, but during the twenty-first century, religious interest among adolescents has declined according to several studies. ● 73% of college freshmen said they had attended religious services frequently or occasionally during their senior year in high school, down from a high of 85 percent in 1997 (Pryor, DeAngelo, & Blake, 2011)
● Religiousness declined from 14 to 20 years of age in the United States (Koenig, McGue, & Iacono, 2008) Some reasons: becoming employed, leaving home, and engaging in sexual activity
religious
____ are more religious than adolescent boys
adolescent girls
Many of the cognitive changes thought to influence religious development involve Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory:____
Formal Operational Stage
provides a foundation for thinking about whether religion provides the best route to a better world.
Increased idealistic thinking
provides adolescents with various ideas about religious and spiritual concepts.
Increased abstract thinking
gives them the ability to develop hypotheses and systematically sort through different answers to spiritual questions
Increased logical reasoning
Lower levels of spirituality/ religion ➔ higher levels of
risk-taking and depression
includes supervising adolescents’ choice of social settings, activities, friends, and academic efforts.
monitoring
also helps the adolescent to be less likely to engage in drinking.
parental monitoring
Parents who practice positive parental monitoring_____ have adolescents who are likely to disclose information with their parents rather than conceal it. ○ This results in more academic success, better learning strategies, and more autonomous motivation.
● Parents who engage in _____also reduce the adolescent’s antisocial behavior.
positive parental monitoring
Adolescents at some point, push for _____ and responsibility to their parents. This frustrates some parents sometimes.
● Most parents expect their teens to struggle with the changes of adolescence, but few anticipate how strongly teens will want to spend time with peers and prove they are responsible for their successes and failures.
● Adolescent’s ability to attain ______ and control over their behavior should be supervised by adults. Adolescents learn to be more independent with the help and guidance of adults.
autonomy
Gender differences characterize autonomy-granting in adolescence. Boys are given more ____ than girls.
independence
Research has shown that those having an _______ are more likely to engage in problematic behaviors and experience difficulties in expressing their emotions.
■ Examples of problematic behavior: Drug abuse and juvenile delinquency
insecure attachment style
Over the past decade, researchers have investigated whether _____ plays a crucial role in adolescents’ relationships with their parents as well.
secure attachment
leads to relationship competence, financial and career competence, and fewer problematic behaviors.
○ Research showed that adolescents who have a _____ relationship with their mothers are less likely to engage in drug abuse.
positive attachment
increases in early adolescence, it doesn’t reach the extreme levels often portrayed by the media.
● These conflicts are more likely to be simple everyday things such as doing household chores, getting home at a certain time, and excessive use of gadgets. These conflicts would rarely be because of drug abuse or delinquency.
● Conflicts with parents escalate during early adolescence and lessen in late adolescence.
PARENT-ADOLESCENT CONFLICT
suggested that teens detach from their parents and face intense, ongoing conflict.
old model of parent-adolescent relationships
views parents as important sources of support while teens explore a broader social world. It also emphasizes that most parent-adolescent conflict is moderate and that everyday disputes help teens transition from childhood dependency to adulthood.
new model of parent-adolescent relationships
Lower rates of delinquency, substance abuse, risky sex, and bullying victimization.
○ Higher academic achievement.
Positive friendships
- with friends increases sharply during adolescence.
- with parents declines significantly in adolescence.
- slightly increases during college years.
- Measured using a 5-point rating scale, with higher scores indicating more _____.
self-disclosure
and the influence of crowds and cliques become increasingly important during adolescence.
peer groups
become increasingly important in meeting social needs.
● The need for intimacy intensifies during early adolescence, motivating teenagers to seek out close friends.
if adolescents fail, to develop such close friendships, they experience loneliness and a reduced sense of self-worth.
adolescent friendships
Be self-centered, snobby, conceited, and jealous; show off; care only about yourself. Be mean, have a bad attitude, be angry, throw temper tantrums, and start trouble.
present yourself negatively
Show disrespect and have bad manners. Use others, be uncooperative, don’t share, ignore others, gossip, and spread rumors.
be psychologically aggressive
Learn about a friend: Ask for his or her name, age, and favorite activities. Use these prosocial overtures: introduce yourself, start a conversation, and invite him or her to do things.
initiate interaction
● Young adolescents conform more to peer standards than children do (Nesi & others, 2017; Prinstein & Giletta, 2016).
● Around the eighth and ninth grades, conformity to peers— especially to their antisocial standards—peaks (Brown & Larson, 2009; Brown & others, 2008).
● adolescents who feel uncertain about their social identity, which may be evident in low self-esteem and high social anxiety, are most likely to conform to peers.
● adolescents are more likely to conform to peers whom they perceive to have higher status than they do.
peer pressure
assume more important roles during adolescence than during childhood (Brown, 2011; Furman & Rose, 2015).
cliques and crowds
Be physically aggressive, yell at others, pick on them, make fun of them, be dishonest, tell secrets, and break promises.
behave antisocially
A small group of about five or six individuals may form among adolescents who engage in similar activities.
cliques
● This initial stage is triggered by puberty. ● From 11 to 13, adolescents become intensely interested in romance and it dominates many conversations with same-sex friends.
● Developing a crush on someone is common and the crush often is shared with a same-sex friend.
● Young adolescents may or may not interact with the individual who is the object of their infatuation.
● Dating usually occurs in a group setting.
- Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about 11 to 13 years of age.
A larger group structure than a clique is usually based on reputation; members may or may not spend much time together.
crowds
● At the end of the high school years, more serious romantic relationships develop.
● This is characterized by strong emotional bonds more closely resembling those in adult romantic relationships.
● These bonds often are more stable and enduring than earlier bonds, typically lasting one year or more
Two variations on these stages in the development of romantic relationships in adolescence involve early and late bloomers (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009).
- Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about 17 to 19 years of age
● 15-20% of 11- to 13-year-olds are in a romantic relationship.
● 35% have had prior romantic experience. ● More likely
EARLY BOOMERS
● At this point in adolescence, two types of romantic involvement occur:
(a) Casual dating emerges between individuals who are mutually attracted. These dating experiences are often short-lived, lasting a few months at best, and usually endure for only a few weeks.
(b) Dating in groups is common and reflects embeddedness in the peer context. Friends often act as third-party facilitators of a potential dating relationship by communicating their friend’s romantic interest and determining whether this attraction is reciprocated.
- Exploring romantic relationships at approximately 14 to 16 years of age.
Two variations on these stages in the development of romantic relationships in adolescence involve early and late bloomers (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009).
EARLY BOOMER
LATE BOOMERS
● Many sexual minority youth date other-sex peers to explore or conceal their orientation.
● Most have had same-sex experiences, often with experimenting peers.
● Some maintain a same-sex orientation, while others identify as primarily heterosexual.
DATING IN GAY AND LESBIAN YOUTH
● 10% of 17- to 19-year-olds have never had a romantic relationship.
● 15% have had no relationship lasting more than four months.
LATE BOOMERS
● Dating and romantic relationships impact adolescent adjustment.
● Some romantic relationships promote positive development.
● Early dating can be problematic, linked to: ○ Higher depression in early adolescent girls.
○ Increased risk of pregnancy and home/school issues.
DATING AND ADJUSTMENT
● Sociocultural context strongly influences adolescent dating patterns.
● Values, religion, and traditions shape dating age, freedom, chaperoning, and gender roles.
● Family conflict may arise if parents come from cultures with stricter dating norms.
SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXTS AND DATING
● Male and female adolescent experiences differ globally.
● Males have greater educational access in most regions, except Japan, the Philippines, and Western countries.
● Adolescent females face more restrictions in careers and leisure activities.
● Gender differences in sexual expression are prominent in India, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and Arab countries.
● These gaps are narrowing, with more educational and career opportunities for women and less control over girls’ relationships.
GENDER
● Adolescent health has improved in some areas but declined in others.
● Deaths from infectious diseases and malnutrition have decreased globally.
● Risky behaviors like illicit drug use and unprotected sex are increasing.
HEALTH
● What traditions continue to influence the lives of adolescents around the globe? What circumstances are changing adolescents’ lives? Depending on the culture, adolescence may involve many different experiences (Chen, Lee, & Chen, 2018).
CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS
Adolescents spend considerable time either dating or thinking about dating (Furman, 2018; Furman & Rose, 2015; Lantagne & Furman, 2017).
● Dating can be a form of recreation, a source of status, or a setting for learning about close relationships, as well as a way of finding a mate.
DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS
● Reed Larson and colleagues studied how adolescents spend time in work, play, and school.
● U.S. adolescents spend about 60% as much time on schoolwork as East Asian peers, mainly due to less homework.
● They have more discretionary time than adolescents in other industrialized countries. ○ U.S.: 40-50% of waking hours ○ East Asia: 25-35% ○ Europe: 35-45%
TIME ALLOCATION TO DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES
● Adolescents’ experiences vary based on whether they undergo a rite of passage.
● Some societies have elaborate ceremonies marking the transition to adulthood.
● A rite of passage involves rituals that signify moving from one status to another, typically adulthood.
● Traditional rites grant access to adult knowledge, practices, and sexuality, often involving separation from family.
● These rites symbolize death and rebirth, bonding adolescents with adult mentor
● African cultures have rich rites of passage, though they are declining due to Western influence.
RITES OF PASSAGE
● Peer influence varies across cultures. ● In most Western countries, peers play a central role, sometimes replacing parental roles.
● In South America, street youth rely on peer networks as surrogate families for survival.
● In Arab countries, peer relations, especially for girls, are more restricted.
PEER
● Family structures and traditions vary across countries. ○ Arab countries: Adolescents follow strict conduct codes and loyalty to family.
○ Western countries: Parenting is less authoritarian, with more divorced and stepfamilies.
○ Global trends include: ○ Increased family mobility and urban migration.
○ Smaller families and fewer extended-family households.
○ More parents working in distant cities or countries.
○ These changes may limit parental time with adolescents.
FAMILY
● Research often fails to separate ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES) influences.
● Ethnic minorities are overrepresented in lower SES, exaggerating ethnicity’s impact.
● Some ethnic minority families are not poor, but many face poverty-related stress.
● Ethnic minority adolescents often experience a “double disadvantage”:
1. Prejudice, discrimination, and bias due to ethnicity.
2. Stressful effects of poverty.
● Middle-income ethnic minority youth still face discrimination despite economic advantages.
ETHNICITY AND SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
● Adolescent culture includes values, SES, ethnicity, and media influences.
● Screen time includes TV, DVDs, video games, computers, and mobile devices.
● Nighttime mobile use and poor sleep increase from ages 13 to 16.
● More nighttime phone use is linked to behavior issues, lower self-esteem, and weaker coping skills.
MEDIA USE AND SCREEN TIME
● Adolescents from low-income families face academic, emotional, and occupational challenges.
● Low-SES teens have higher rates of smoking, depression, delinquency, and physical illnesses.
● Studies link low SES in youth to long-term risks like depression in adulthood and cardiovascular disease.
● Key risk factors: unhealthy behaviors, financial stress, poor medical care, and lower education.
● Protective factors for academic success: academic commitment, emotional control, family involvement, and school climate.
● Persistent poverty, especially from birth to age 2, has lasting negative effects on well-being.
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND POVERTY
● High immigration rates contribute to the growing ethnic minority youth population in the U.S.
● Immigrant families vary in parental birthplace, child’s birthplace, and immigration timing.
● Adjustment challenges include language barriers, separation from support networks, acculturation struggles, and socioeconomic shifts.
● Immigrant Asian adolescents report higher depression, lower self-esteem, and more discrimination.
● Undocumented status affects development due to limited access to services, financial stress, and lack of home learning support.
● Culturally sensitive counseling is crucial for immigrant families.
● Family factors like nativity, time in the U.S., SES, values, and parenting impact stress adaptation.
● Higher familism in Mexican-origin youth is linked to lower risk-taking.
● Parents’ education before migration strongly influences children’s academic success.
IMMIGRATION
● Media use and screen time play a major role in adolescents’ lives.
● Kaiser Family Foundation surveys (1999, 2004, 2009) show a dramatic increase in media use.
● Daily media use in 2009: ○ 8-11 years: 5 hrs 29 min ○ 11-14 years: 8 hrs 40 min ○ 15-18 years: 7 hrs 58 min
● Early adolescence sees a 3+ hour jump in media use, mainly from TV and video games.
● 11-14-year-olds use over 60 hours of media weekly, 15-18-year-olds nearly 56 hours.
● Media multitasking is rising, with 39% of 7th-12th graders using multiple media at once.
● Multitasking while studying impairs learning and task performance.
● Heavy media multitaskers struggle with delayed gratification and make more intuitive but incorrect decisions.
● Using digital devices while driving increases distraction and complexity.
PREVALENCE OF MEDIA USE AND SCREEN TIME
● Technological change is rapidly shaping culture and daily life.
● Basic skills (communication, problem-solving, creativity) remain essential but are pursued differently.
● Technology integration is crucial for future job readiness.
● Mobile media (phones, iPads) drive increased adolescent media use.
● Cell phone ownership among teens: ○ 2004: 39% ○ 2009: 66% ○ 2016: 87% (92% predicted for 2019).
● Social media usage among 13-17-year-olds (2015):
○ 92% use social networks daily. ○ 24% go online almost constantly. ○ Facebook (71%) and Instagram (50%) are most used.
● Less screen time is linked to better adolescent health.
● Higher social media use correlates with higher heavy drinking rates.
● Text messaging is the top way teens connect with friends, surpassing face-to-face contact.
● Most teens prefer voicemail to communicate with parents.
TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITALLY MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
Juvenile delinquency refers to unlawful or illegal behavior committed by adolescents. It is a broad term that includes offenses ranging from minor infractions, such as littering, to serious crimes like murder.
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
● Males are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior than females.
● Delinquency rates are also higher among minority groups and youth from lower socioeconomic backgrounds compared to their representation in the general population. ○ However, these groups have less influence over judicial decision-making in the United States, which may result in them being more readily judged as delinquent than their White, middle-socioeconomic-status counterparts who commit similar offenses
● A distinction is made between early-onset—before age 11—and late-onset—after 11—antisocial behavior.
● Early-onset antisocial behavior is associated with more negative developmental outcomes than late-onset antisocial behavior. ○ Not only is it more likely to persist into emerging adulthood, but it is also associated with more mental health and relationship problems.
DELINQUENCY RATES
● While delinquency is not as exclusively associated with lower socioeconomic status as in the past, certain characteristics of lower-SES culture may still encourage delinquent behavior.
● According to a study, children and adolescents who are experiencing poverty and family maltreatment are more likely to enter juvenile justice systems in adolescence.
● In low-SES areas, delinquency is often a status symbol, especially for boys, due to crime exposure, poverty, and lack of education or activities. Youth from persistently poor families are over twice as likely to be delinquent. ○ “Siga” mentality or “tough” mentality.
● Inappropriate and inconsistent family discipline are also causes of delinquency.
● Siblings, peers, and peer pressure strongly influence delinquency, especially in struggling students and those with low self-control or callous traits.
CAUSES OF DELINQUENCY
● Rates of ever experiencing major depressive disorder range from 15 to 20 percent for adolescents.
● Adolescents who are experiencing high levels of stress and/or loss of some type are more likely to be depressed.
● Adolescents who are depressed have a high sense of hopelessness.
● Adolescent females are far more likely to develop depression than their male counterparts. ○ This is because females are more prone to depression due to rumination, amplifying negative self-image, greater discrimination, and earlier puberty.
○ This is because females are more prone to depression due to rumination, amplifying negative self-image, greater discrimination, and earlier puberty
DEPRESSION
helps at-risk youth build coping skills. ■ Rodney Hammond discovered his passion for psychology while working in a child development research program during college. He earned a doctorate in school and community psychology, later training clinical psychologists and leading violence prevention programs for at-risk youth. As the first Director of Violence Prevention at the CDC, he focused on reducing youth violence. After retiring, he became an adjunct professor at the University of Georgia.
RODNEY HAMMOND
○ Depression is associated with stronger depressive symptoms, migraines, poor health, and low social support.
○ Early depressive symptoms also led to weak maternal relationships, less positive romantic relationships, and more likely to be lonely during adulthood.
● Adolescent depression is linked to facing challenges during early adulthood.
are linked to adolescent depression as well as the state of the family. ○ These include having a depressed parent, emotionally unavailable parents, parents who have high marital conflict, and parents with financial problems.
Genes
play a big part in an adolescent’s depression levels. Having nondepressed friends likely results in a nondepressed adolescent. However, having no friends or depressed friends likely results in depression in the individual
Friends
also influences an adolescent’s risk of having depression. ○ Weight-related stress is a key factor in the higher depression rates among adolescent girls compared to boys.
○ Adolescent females usually amplify their negative self-perceptions
Obesity
● A research review found that serotonin reuptake inhibitors, behavior therapy, and interpersonal therapy effectively treat adolescent depression. ○ The review found that the most effective treatment for adolescent depression is a combination of drug therapy and cognitive behavior therapy. Prozac and other SSRIs were also highlighted as effective.
THERAPY TO DEPRESSION
● Suicidal behavior is rare in childhood. However, this escalates in adolescence and then increases further in emerging adulthood.
● The rate of suicide among emerging adults is triple that of adolescents (Park & others, 2006).
● Adolescents contemplate committing suicide and then attempt it unsuccessfully, and then commit it.
● In a study by Ivy-Stephenson et al. (2017), females are more likely to attempt suicide than men, but men are more likely to succeed in committing suicide.
● Adolescent males use lethal means to commit suicide like, the use of guns. Adolescent females, on the other hand, cut their wrists or overdose to commit suicide.
SUICIDE
- lack of interest in life experiences. ● Suicidal adolescents have shown symptoms of severe depression–a sense of hopelessness, low self-esteem, and high self-blame.
Anhedonia
REASONS OF SUICIDE
Anhedonia
Family Relationships
may be a big factor in an adolescent’s suicidal thoughts and actions. ○ An adolescent may have a history of prolonged family instability and unhappiness.
○ The lack of emotional support, affection, and parental pressures might lead to an adolescent’s suicide.
○ In two recent studies, child maltreatment during the childhood years was linked with suicide attempts in adulthood (Park, 2017; Turner et al., 2017).
Family Relationships
● Adolescents most at risk often have multiple issues. Researchers are increasingly finding that
problem behaviors in adolescence are interconnected.
○ Heavy alcohol use can be linked with early sexual activities, low grades or a school dropout, and delinquency
THE INTERRELATION OF PROBLEMS AND
SUCCESSFUL PREVENTION/INTERVENTION PROGRAMS
- These programs focus on the high-risk adolescent’s need for adult support and supervision. For example, in substance abuse programs, a counselor is provided for individuals who have a difficult time dealing with substance use. This counselor will provide care and support to the individual full-time. The idea is that there is an adult present for the adolescent who provides them care, support, and guidance.
1.Intensive individualized attention
- In this approach, it is important to reach younger children and their families before or at the onset of their problems and issues arise.
- Early identification and intervention
The basic philosophy of this approach is that a variety of programs and services go hand in hand in dealing with adolescent issues. In one successful substance abuse program, a community-wide health promotion campaign has been implemented that uses local media and community education, in concert with a substance abuse curriculum in the schools.
- Community-wide multiagency collaborative approaches
● The Fast Track intervention aimed to reduce juvenile delinquency in high-risk children from four U.S. cities. Over 9,000 kindergarteners were screened, and 891 were assigned to either an intervention or control group. The 10-year program, starting at age 6.5, included parent training, social skills development, reading tutoring, mentoring, and a revised curriculum focused on socio-emotional growth.
● This intervention significantly reduced the likelihood of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency. ○ conduct disorder was reduced by 75%, ADHD by 53%, and externalizing disorders by 43%. At age 19, the program lowered youth arrest rates, and by age 25, it reduced violent crimes, drug offenses, and risky sexual behavior. It also improved well-being scores.
● The program’s success was linked to improved social skills, reduced aggression, and better self-regulation, which cut crime by one-third in adulthood
CONNECTING THROUGH RESEARCH
