2.kol Flashcards
coordination and types
linking together different elements of language
- syndetic- coordinating conjunction : and, or, but-Slowly and stealthily, he crept towards his victim
- asyndetic-Slowly, stealthily, he crept towards his victim.
- polysyndetic- The wind roared, and the lighting flashed, and the clouds raced across the sky.
coordination vs subordination
Coordination – units are on the same syntactic level.
e.g. He tried hard, but he failed.
Subordination – one of the units is a constituent of a superordinate unit.
e.g. Although he tried hard, he failed.
coordinator AND
a) Sequence
I washed the dishes and (then) I dried them.
b) Consequence or result
He heard an explosion and (therefore) he phoned the police.
c) Contrast
Peter is secretive and (in contrast) David is open.
d) Concessive meaning
She tried hard and (yet) she failed.
e) Condition
Give me some money and (then) I’ll do the shopping.
f) Similarity
A trade agreement should be no problem, and a cultural exchange could be easily arranged.
g) Comment
There’s only one thing to do now, and that’s to apologize.
THE USES OF or
a) Exclusive
You can sleep on the couch or you can go to a hotel
b) Inclusive
You can boil an egg, (or) you can make some sandwiches, or you can do both
c) Restatement or corrective
They are enjoying themselves, or (rather) / (at least) they appear to be enjoying themselves
d) Negative condition
a. Switch on the radio or we’ll miss the news.
THE USES OF but
Contrast
a) John is poor, but he is happy [negative]
b) Jane did not waste her time before and exam, but (on the contrary) studied hard every evening [positive]
CORRELATIVES
Either… or, both… and, neither… nor
Either the room is too small or the piano is too large.
Not (only)… but
They not only broke into his office, but (they) (also) tore up his manuscripts.
Simple coordination
- units are parallel in meaning, function, and form
- CONJOINS
- CONJOINT
Segregatory and combinatory coordination of NP
1-John and Mary are teachers
[John is a teacher, and Mary is a teacher]
2-b) Combinatory coordination
John and Mary are a pleasant couple
[John is a pleasant couple, and Mary is a pleasant couple]
Coordinated sentences with ambiguous meaning
e.g. John and Mary are married
John and Mary are married to each other
Both John and Mary are married. (to someone)
Gapping
Second conjoin contains a medial ellipsis:
1) Subject + object
One girl has written a poem, and the other a short story
2) Subject + adverbial
Smith completed the course in thirty-five minutes, and Johnson in thirty-seven
Appended coordination
An elliptical clause is appended to a previous clause:
John writes extremely well, and Sally, too.
Pseudo-coordination
a) The coordination of two verbs that has an idiomatic function
I’ll try and come tomorrow (= try to come)
b) Two adjectives – the first functions as an intensifier:
His speech was nice and short (= nicely short)
I hit him good and hard (= really hard)
c) Identical comparative form of verbs and adverbs that express continuation or repetition:
He talked and talked and talked.
d) Two identical nouns that indicate different kinds:
You can find doctors and doctors.
Quasi-coordination
- As well as, as much as, rather than, more than
e.g. John, as much as his brother, was responsible for the loss.
Coordination: John and his brother were responsible…
Complex sentence
Consists of only one main clause and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses.
Although I admire her reasoning, I reject her conclusion.
Compound sentence
A sentence made up of two independent clauses connected with a coordinating conjunction.
Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.
CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES
1) Finite clause – contains finite verb phrase
I won’t go out with you because I’m studying this evening.
2) Nonfinite clause (to-infinitive, bare infinitive, -ing and -ed participle)
Knowing my temper, I didn’t reply.
3) Verbless clause
Although always helpful, he was not much liked.
Nonfinite clauses
1) To-infinitive The best thing would be (for you) to tell everybody. 2) Bare infinitive All I did was hit him on the head. 3) -ing participle Leaving the room, he tripped on the mat. 4) -ed participle When questioned, she denied everything.
THE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
1.a) The MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
(necessity, demand, proposal or intention for the future)
e.g. We insisted that he leave at once.
1.b) The FORMULAIC (or ‘optative’) SUBJUNCTIVE
optative – expressing a wish or a choice
e.g. God save the Queen.
Long live the king.
THE PAST (or were-) SUBJUNCTIVE
- hypothetical meaning is expressed with the past subjunctive
- this type survives only in this form were as a past form of be.
e. g. I wish he were here.
- this type survives only in this form were as a past form of be.
PUTATIVE SHOULD
- means possibly existing
- the notion of a ‘putative’ situation (possibly existing)
e. g. I’m surprised that he should feel lonely. (questions this loneliness)
- the notion of a ‘putative’ situation (possibly existing)
Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses
- Stands for one element of the main clause
2. Cannot stand alone
3. Depends on the main clause for its interpretation
