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Earth's Life Support Systems > 2.b. It is possible to identify the physical and human factors that affect the water and carbon cycles in an Arctic tundra area. > Flashcards

2.b. It is possible to identify the physical and human factors that affect the water and carbon cycles in an Arctic tundra area. Flashcards

1
Q

The arctic tundra spans an area of how large? What regions does it span?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Spans an area of 8 million km2.

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2
Q

What regions does the arctic tundra span?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Canada, Alaska, and Siberia.

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3
Q

What two areas does the artic tundra extend from/to?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Extends from the boreal forest to the Arctic Ocean.

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4
Q

The Southern border for the artic tundra hits what?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

The 10°C isothermal (climatic limit for tree lives).

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5
Q

What is ‘the 10°C isotherm’?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Defined as being the area where the average temperature in the warmest month (July) is below 10°C.

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6
Q

What is the mean temperature of the Alaskan tundra?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

-15°C.

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7
Q

What is the ground like within the Alaskan tundra?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Permanently frozen (referred to as permafrost).

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8
Q

How much of the permafrost thaws in the summer months?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

The top 1m.

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9
Q

In Winter, sunlight is minimal. How low can temperatures reach?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

-40°C.

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10
Q

What is sunlight like within the Alaskan tundra’s summer months?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Experiences extended sunlight hours.

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11
Q

What is precipitation like in the Alaskan tundra?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Precipitation is low.

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12
Q

What is biodiversity like in the Alaskan tundra?

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Low with limited vegetation, and few adapted organisms.

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13
Q

Outline the ‘low arctic’ in the Alaskan tundra.

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Low lying vegetation provides continuous cover.

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14
Q

Outline the ‘high arctic’ in the Alaskan tundra.

(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Much of the land is bare ground.

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15
Q

Precipitation is low. What is the annual precipitation in the tundra? How does most precipitation fall?

(Water cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Less than 100mm in most places.

Most precipitation falls as snow.

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16
Q

Are water stores in the atmosphere large? What temperatures does this create, and what does this reduce?

(Water cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

No, there are small stores of moisture in the atmosphere.

This creates low temperatures which reduce absolute humidity.

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17
Q

What is transpiration like in the tundra? Why is this?

(Water cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Transpiration is limited.

This is because the sparseness of the vegetation cover and the short growing season of only about 3 months.

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18
Q

What is evaporation like in the tundra? Why is this?

(Water cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Low rates of evaporation.

Much of the Sun’s energy in summer is expended melting snow, meaning ground temperatures remain low and inhibit convection.

Also, surface and soil water are frozen for most of the year.

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19
Q

What are groundwater and soil moisture stores like in the tundra? Why is this?

(Water cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Limited groundwater and soil moisture stores.

This is because the permafrost is a barrier to infiltration, percolation, recharge and groundwater flow.

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20
Q

What accumulated during the winter months in the tundra?

(Water cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Snow and river/lake ice.

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21
Q

When does the uppermost layer of the permafrost, snow, river, and lake ice melt? What does this result in?

(Water cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Spring and early summer.

This results in a sharp increase in river flow.

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22
Q

What is the minimum river discharge of the Yukon river in the winter?

(Water cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

340 cumecs.

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23
Q

What is the maximum river discharge of the Yukon river in the summer?

(Water cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

24,600 cumecs.

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24
Q

The permafrost acts as a vast carbon sink. How much carbon does it contain?

(Carbon cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

1600 gigatonnes of carbon.

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25
Q

What is decomposition like in the tundra? Why is this?

(Carbon cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Decomposition is slow.

This is due to low temperatures.

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26
Q

How much greater are the stores of carbon in soils than in above ground biomass?

(Carbon cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

5 times greater.

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27
Q

When are flows of carbon the most concentrated in the tundra?

(Carbon cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

In the summer months.

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28
Q

Flows of carbon are greater in the summer months. What does this increase?

(Carbon cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Increases plant growth and flowering.

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29
Q

Other than an increase in carbon flows, what else increases in the summer months?

(Carbon cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Decomposition rates.

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30
Q

What threatens the permafrost’s role as a carbon sink?

(Carbon cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Global warming.

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31
Q

Even if we climate change is mitigated, the adaptive strategies wouldn’t matter if permafrost melted. Why?

(Carbon cycle in the tundra)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

So much carbon would have escape.

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32
Q

Compare carbon stores between the tundra and the rainforest.

(Comparisons between tundra and rainforest)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Rainforest carbon stores are above ground.

Whereas the tundra’s are below ground.

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33
Q

Compare biomasses between the tundra and the rainforest.

(Comparisons between tundra and rainforest)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

The Amazon rainforest contains 180 tonnes/ha of carbon. (High biomass).

The Alaskan tundra contains 4-29 tonnes/ha of carbon. (Low biomass).

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34
Q

The flows and stores of water in the Alaskan tundra are influenced by what 3 factors?

(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Temperature, relief, and rock permeability.

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35
Q

How is water stored in the tundra (for most of the year)?

(Temperature)
(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Ground ice in the permafrost layer.

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36
Q

During the short summer the shallow active layer of the permafrost (top 1 metre) thaws. How does this affect stored water?

(Temperature)
(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Liquid water flows on the surface.

Meltwater forms millions of pools and shallow lakes which stud the tundra landscape.

37
Q

During the short summer the shallow active layer of the permafrost (top 1 metre) thaws and meltwater forms millions of pools and shallow lakes which stud the tundra landscape. What happens to surface water?

(Temperature)
(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

As drainage is poor, water cannot escape and infiltrate the soil because of the permafrost at depth.

38
Q

In winter, what prevents evapotranspiration?

(Temperature)
(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Sub-zero temperatures.

39
Q

Does evapotranspiration occur in the tundra’s summer?

(Temperature)
(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Some evapotranspiration occurs from standing water, saturated soils and vegetation.

40
Q

What is humidity like in the arctic tundra?

(Temperature)
(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Low all year round.

41
Q

Outline rock permeability as a factor affecting stores and flows of water.

(Rock permeability)
(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Permeability is low owing to the permafrost and the Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks which dominate the geology.

42
Q

What is relief like in the arctic tundra? What made it like this?

(Relief)
(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Ancient rock surfaces which underlie the tundra has been reduced to a gently undulating plain.

This was caused by hundreds of millions of years of erosion and weathering.

43
Q

How does minimal relief and large glacial deposits affecting stores and flows of water?

(Relief)
(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of water)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Impede drainage and contribute to waterlogging during the summer months.

44
Q

How is most carbon stored in the tundra? How long has most of the carbon been stored here for?

(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of carbon)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Partly decomposed plant remains that are frozen in the permafrost.

At least the past 500,000 years.

45
Q

What 3 factors limit plant growth in the tundra?

(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of carbon)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Low temperatures.

The unavailability of liquid water for most of the year.

Parent rocks containing few nutrients.

46
Q

Many factors affect plant growth in the tundra. How does this affect the total carbon store of the biomass?

(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of carbon)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Makes the total carbon store of the biomass relatively small.

47
Q

Is photosynthesis and NPP low in the tundra? How does this affect growing season?

(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of carbon)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Photosynthesis and NPP are low.

Meaning the growing season lasts for barely 3 months.

48
Q

What is NPP? (Net Primary Production)

A

The amount of biomass or carbon produced by primary producers per unit area and time.

49
Q

The growing season in the tundra is very short (3 months). How is this compensated?

(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of carbon)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

There are long hours of daylight in summer.

50
Q

Low temperatures and waterlogging slow what 3 factors within the carbon cycle of the tundra?

(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of carbon)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Decomposition.

Respiration.

The flow of CO2 (to the atmosphere).

51
Q

What rock factors mean that little influence is made on the carbon (and water) cycle?

(Physical factors, seasonal changes, and stores and flows of carbon)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Impermeability of the permafrost.

Rock permeability.

Rock porosity.

Mineral composition of rocks.

52
Q

Outline the biome of the North Slope of Alaska.

(Oil and gas production)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

A vast wilderness of Arctic tundra.

53
Q

Where were oil and gas first discovered within Alaska? When?

(Oil and gas production)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

The North Slope of Alaska, Prudhoe Bay in 1968.

54
Q

What are three major challenges faced in the development of oil and gas industries on the North Slope of Alaska?

(Oil and gas production)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

A harsh climate with extreme cold and long periods of darkness in winter.

Permafrost, and the melting of the active layer in summer.

Remoteness and poor accessibility.

A fragile wilderness of great ecological value.

55
Q

Although many challenges were presented during oil and gas development, why did production go ahead?

(Oil and gas production)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Production was driven by high global energy prices.

The US government’s policy to reduce dependence on oil imports.

56
Q

What underwent massive fixed investments, in order to aid oil and gas production in 1970-1980s?

(Oil and gas production)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Pipelines.

Roads.

Oil production plants.

Gas processing facilities.

Power lines.

Power generators.

Gravel quarries.

57
Q

In the early 1990s, the North Slops accounted for nearly how much of the USA’s domestic oil production? What is the present day proportion?

(Oil and gas production)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Nearly 1/4.

Present day proportions are less than 4%, though Alaska remains an important oil and gas province.

58
Q

What are two factors the explain the North Slopes’ decline in domestic oil production.

(Oil and gas production)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

High production costs on the North Slope.

The massive growth of the oil shale industry in the USA.

59
Q

What is permafrost highly sensitive to?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Changes in the thermal balance.

60
Q

In many areas, thermal balance has been disrupted by the activities of oil and gas companies. How has this affected the permafrost?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Caused localised melting of the permafrost.

61
Q

What are the 3 actions that cause localised melting of the permafrost?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Construction and operation of oil and gas installations, settlements and infrastructure diffusing heat directly to the environment.

Dust deposition along roadsides creating darkened snow surfaces, thus increasing absorption of sunlight.

Removal of the vegetation cover which insulates the permafrost.

62
Q

When the permafrost melts, what is released?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Carbon dioxide and methane.

63
Q

What is the estimated CO2 loss from permafrost each year?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

7 to 40 million tonnes/year.

64
Q

What is the estimated methane loss from permafrost each year?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

24,000 to 114,000 tonnes/ year.

65
Q

Other than through permafrost action, what else inputs CO2 to the atmosphere.

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Gas flaring and oil spillages.

66
Q

Changes to local carbon cycles are linked to industrial development. State an example.

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

E.g. The destruction of tundra vegetation reduces photosynthesis and the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

E.g. The thawing of soil increases microbial activity, decomposition and emissions of carbon dioxide.

67
Q

CO2 emissions from the North Slope permafrost are estimated to have increased by show much since 1975?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

73%.

68
Q

Is permafrost (CO2 escape) damage long-term?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the carbon cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

The slow-growing nature of tundra vegetation means that regeneration and recovery from damage takes decades.

69
Q

Melting of the permafrost and snow cover increases what two things? What does this cause?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the water cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Run-off and river discharge.

This makes flooding more likely.

70
Q

Melting of the permafrost and snow cover increase run-off and discharge, making flooding more likely. What does this create more of in the summer?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the water cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Wetlands, ponds, and lakes have become more extensive, (increasing evaporation).

71
Q

Strip mining of aggregates for construction creates what? How does this affect the water cycle?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the water cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Artificial lakes.

These disrupt drainage and also expose the permafrost to further melting.

72
Q

Give an example of how artificial lakes disrupt drainage and expose the permafrost to further melting.

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the water cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

E.g. Artificial lakes at Goldstream have experienced 15m of permafrost thaw in the last 60 years.

73
Q

Other than strip mines/ artificial lakes, drainage networks can be disrupted by what other two things?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the water cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Road construction.

Seismic explosions used to prospect for oil and gas.

74
Q

Water abstracted from creeks and rivers may be used for what activities? Where has this been done? What does this reduce?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the water cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Industrial use and for the building of ice roads in winter.

E.g. Fairbanks and Prudhoe Bay.

This reduces localised run-off.

75
Q

What is water abstraction?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the water cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

The process of extracting water from any natural source

76
Q

What are aggregates?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the water cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Sand and gravel.

77
Q

BP extracts most of the water it needs from what 2 sources?

(Oil and gas production and impacts on the water cycle)
(Alaskan Tundra: Case Study)

A

Kuparuk River and Big Lake.

78
Q

Outline ‘insulated ice and gravel pads’ as a strategy used to protect and reduce permafrost damage.

(Insulated ice and gravel pads)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

Roads and other infrastructural features can be constructed on insulating ice or gravel pads.

Thus protecting the permafrost from melting.

79
Q

Give an example of where insulated ice and gravel pads have been used.

(Insulated ice and gravel pads)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

E.g. Spine Road at Prudhoe Bay lies on a 2 m deep pad.

80
Q

How do elevated buildings and pipelines protect against potential permafrost damage?

(Elevated buildings and pipelines)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

Allows cold air to circulate beneath these structures.

This provides insulation against heat-generating buildings, pipework, etc. which would otherwise melt the permafrost.

81
Q

Why are new drilling techniques needed?

(Drilling laterally beyond drilling platforms)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

To allow oil and gas to be accessed several kilometres from the drilling site.

82
Q

What type of drill has Shell developed? What does it allow for?

(Drilling laterally beyond drilling platforms)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

The ‘snake drill’.

It allows for directional drilling across a wide area from a single drilling site.

This reduces the need for drilling rigs, as well as the impacts on vegetation and permafrost due to construction.

83
Q

Why are powerful computers needed to detect remote oil and gas structures?

(More powerful computers can detect oil and gas-bearing geological structures remotely)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

To reduce the number of exploration wells, thus reducing the impact on the environment (better than exploratory drilling).

84
Q

What percentage of all ‘supercomputers’ are within the oil industry?

(More powerful computers can detect oil and gas-bearing geological structures remotely)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

10%.

85
Q

What is an economic advantage of using ‘supercomputers’ within the oil industry?

(More powerful computers can detect oil and gas-bearing geological structures remotely)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

Helps to determine the size of deposits, this is economically beneficial.

86
Q

Where are refrigerated supports often used?

(Refrigerated supports)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

The Trans-Alaska Pipeline.

87
Q

What do refrigerated supports do?

(Refrigerated supports)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

Stabilise the temperature of the permafrost, and conserve the permafrost beneath buildings and other infrastructures.

88
Q

Are refrigerated supports only being used in the oil industry infrastructure?

(Refrigerated supports)
(Strategies used to protect and reduce the damage to the permafrost)

A

No, the strategy is being implemented across other forms of infrastructure.

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