2.8 Physical and psychological health hazards and risk control

Question 1

What does the ILO Code for Ambient Factors require with regards to exposure to noise?

Answer 1

The Code requires employers to:
• assess the risks to your employees from noise at work;
• take action to reduce the noise exposure that produces those risks;
• provide your employees with hearing protection if you cannot reduce the noise exposure enough by using other methods;
• make sure the legal limits on noise exposure are not exceeded;
• provide your employees with information, instruction and training; and
• carry out health surveillance where there is a risk to health.

Question 2

What are the 2 main causes of damage to hearing?

Answer 2

1. Long-term exposure: Regular but perhaps limited exposures to loud noise over a period of time creating a cumulative effect on hearing.
2. Short-term exposure: A sudden traumatic exposure which causes damage where the effects are noticed immediately.

Question 3

Define threshold shift, noise induced hearing loss and tinnitus.

Answer 3

Threshold shift
Sounds become muffled so that it is hard to tell similar-sounding words apart, or to pick out a voice in a crowd, and it is difficult to distinguish speech from background noise, indicating
that the level at which sounds can be clearly distinguished has reduced.

Noise-induced hearing loss
This occurs where the ear is unable to respond fully to sound within the speech range. The person does not necessarily lose the ability to hear sound, but is not able to distinguish the spoken word clearly even if it is presented with a raised voice.

Tinnitus
This is a subjective condition where ‘noises in the head’ or ‘ringing in the ear’ are the
descriptive symptoms. There are no observable external symptoms.

Question 4

What are the main indicators that there is a noise problem in the workplace?

Answer 4

• Is the noise intrusive, like a busy street, a vacuum cleaner or a crowded restaurant for most of the working day?
• Do employees have to raise their voices to carry out a normal conversation when about two metres apart for at least part of the day?
• Do employees use noisy powered tools or machinery for more than half an hour each day?
• Is the work in a noisy industry, e.g. construction, demolition or road repair;
woodworking; plastics processing; engineering; textile manufacture; general fabrication; forging, pressing or stamping; paper or board making; canning or bottling; foundries?
• Are there noises due to impacts (such as hammering, drop forging, pneumatic impact
tools, etc.) or explosive sources such as cartridge operated tools or detonators, or guns?

Question 5

What are the exposure limit and action values established in the EU relating to noise?

Answer 5

• The lower exposure action level: a daily or weekly personal exposure of 80dB(A) and a peak sound pressure of 135dB(C).
• The upper exposure action level: a daily or weekly personal exposure of 85dB(A) and a peak sound pressure of 137dB(C).
• The exposure limit level: a daily or weekly personal exposure of 87dB(A) and a peak
sound pressure of 140dB(C).

Question 6

List some basic noise control measures.

Answer 6

• using quieter equipment; selection of equipment for one that produces less noise;
• reducing noise by technical means;
• replacing noisy components;
• maintaining equipment;
• isolating the workforce from the noisy activity using compartmentalisation;
• carrying out tasks at times when population of the area is low; and/or
• providing Personal Protective Equipment.

Question 7

What are the main methods of noise control?

Answer 7

Enclosure
Surrounding the noisy equipment with noise insulating material.

Insulation
Imposing a barrier such as a brick wall between the noise source and the receivers will provide noise insulation.

Damping
Putting an elastic element, e.g. rubber mount, in the path of vibration can reduce the noise produced as it reduces the vibration transmitted by equipment to its surroundings

Lagging
The insulation of pipes and other fluid containers to reduce sound transmission.

Absorption
When noise passes through porous material, e.g. foam or wool, some of its energy is absorbed and less noise is returned to the environment.

Isolation of workers
The provision of sound-proofed workrooms or enclosures isolated from noisy environments.

Silencers
Normally fitted to engines which are exhausting gases to atmosphere. Silencers consist of absorbent material or baffles.

Personal hearing protection
Personal hearing protection should be used as a last resort

Question 8

List some occupations with potential to noise exposure problems.

Answer 8

• Construction.
• Uniformed services.
• Entertainment.
• Manufacturing.
• Call centres.

Question 9

What are the effects on the body in exposure to vibration?

Answer 9

Regular and frequent exposure to vibration is known to lead to permanent and debilitating health effects such as white finger, loss of sensation, pain, and numbness in the hand, arms, spine and joints. These effects are known as:
• Hand–arm vibration syndrome (HAVS).
• Whole body vibration (WBV).

Question 10

What parts of the body can HAV cause damage to?

Answer 10

• Blood circulatory system (e.g. vibration white finger)
• Sensory nerves
• Muscles
• Bones
• Joints

Question 11

What are the symptoms of HAV?

Answer 11

• tingling and numbness in the fingers;
• not being able to feel things properly;
• loss of strength in the hands; and/or
• fingers going white (blanching) and becoming red and painful on recovery

Question 12

What is WBV caused by?

Answer 12

• poor design of controls, making it difficult for the driver to operate the machine / vehicle easily, twisting or stretching;
• incorrect adjustment by the driver of the seat, causing poor posture;
• sitting for long periods without being able to change position;
• poor driver posture; and/or
• repeated manual handling and lifting of loads by the driver.

Question 13

What actions are employers required to take in terms of HAV and WBV?

Answer 13

• Assess the vibration risk to employees;
• Decide if likely exposure will exceed the daily exposure action value (EAV) and if so,
implement controls to reduce or eliminate risk so far as is reasonably practicable;
• Provide health surveillance to employees who are at risk;
• Decide if exposure will exceed the daily exposure limit value (ELV) and, if so, take
immediate action to reduce their exposure below the ELV; and
• Provide information and training to employees on health risks and the actions that are being taken to control those risks.

Question 14

What measures can be taken to control risks from vibration?

Answer 14

• redesigning the job so that if possible vibration is eliminated;
• selection of the right equipment for the job and maintenance of it;
• scheduling work to avoid long periods of exposure and provide breaks;
• avoiding high levels and/or prolonged exposure for older employees, people with back problems, young people and pregnant women;
• provision of information and training to employees on health risks;
• PPE, especially clothing and gloves to keep hands warm; and
• health surveillance.

Question 15

What health surveillance programme should be implemented where there are risks from vibration?

Answer 15

• implement a system for early reporting of back pain symptoms;
• review and analyse results to identify vulnerable individuals / groups;
• periodically complete a questionnaire checklist for employees at risk;
• refer those with problems to an occupational health service provider;
• consider the results to check if your risk controls are working; and
• make changes to the risk controls if necessary.

Question 16

Define radiation?

Answer 16

Radiation has been defined as ‘the process
of emitting radiant energy in the form of
waves or particles’. These waves may be
in the form of heat, light, or radio energy
but all can be found in the electromagnetic
spectrum of energy. Radiation can be
either ionising or nonionising.

Question 17

What is ionising radiation?

Answer 17

Ionising radiation is emitted from radioactive materials and is able to penetrate and damage body tissue and organs.
Ionising radiation is radiation that
has sufficient energy to produce ions by interacting with matter.

Ionising radiation occurs as X-rays and gamma rays or as alpha and beta particles. It occurs naturally (e.g. radon gas) but is also produced artificially (e.g. X-ray machines).

The effects can include:
• massive cell destruction / death;
• skin burns / hair loss;
• radiation sickness / nausea;
• damage to organs;
• the formation of cancers; and/or
• hereditary effects in descendants, e.g. genetic disorders.

Question 18

What is non-ionising radiation?

Answer 18

Non-ionising radiation is at the lower end of the energy spectrum and has less penetrative power than ionising radiation.

The danger is always due to direct or reflected radiation. Visible light can cause damage if it is present in sufficiently intense form. The eyes and skin tissue are particularly vulnerable, and indirect danger may also be created by the employee being temporary dazzled.

The main effects can include:
• damage to the cornea;
• pain and symptoms similar to that of sand in the eye (e.g. arc eye);
• redness or burning of the skin;
• accelerated ageing of the skin;
• blindness; and/or
• heat exhaustion / overheating of the body (internally through an increase in core
temperature).

Question 19

What are typical sources of non-ionising radiation?

Answer 19

• Ultra-violet: electric-arc welding, plasma torches, curing of inks and resins, sun beds, some lasers and a variety of high intensity lamps such as mercury and arc lamps.
• Visible radiation: lasers and other high intensity lights, which are increasingly found in common machinery and equipment such as photocopiers and printers.

• Infra-red radiation: any hot body gives off this type of radiation, as well as specialist
infra-red heaters

• Microwaves: drying and heating equipment used, for example, in catering and laundries

Question 20

What are typical sources of ionising radiation?

Answer 20

The most familiar example of ionising radiation is the use of X-ray equipment for
radiography in hospitals and dentistry; also the use of radioactive materials in the nuclear power industry.

Question 21

What controls can be put into place for controlling effects of radiation?

Answer 21

• Management controls ensuring that use of radioactive materials is tightly controlled,
e.g. designated areas, authorised staff only, safe systems of work, monitoring of
exposure levels.
• Reduce the duration of exposure by introducing job rotation.
• Increased distance.
• Engineering controls, e.g. physical barriers such as equipment casings, lead screens preventing harmful transmission of radiation. The type of shielding will have to be selected in accordance to the type of radiation present in the workplace.
• Personal protective equipment and appropriate clothing to ensure that risks that remain are adequately controlled.

Question 22

What are the 2 categories of work for radiation work?

Answer 22

• Controlled area – This is an area in which it is likely that exposures exceeding three tenths of a dose limit (see below) may be received. The dose might be due to external
radiation or internal contamination or a combination of both. Controlled areas will
include where radioactive materials are stored and dispensed.

• Supervised area – This is an area in which a worker could receive between one-tenth and three-tenths of a dose limit. Areas in which work with radiation is carried out will normally be supervised areas, including X-ray rooms.

Question 23

What is the role of the radiation protection advisor?

Answer 23

Where work involves exposure to significant levels of ionising radiation (e.g. hospitals, universities, nuclear industry), employers (known as ‘radiation employers’) must appoint a
competent Radiation Protection Advisor (RPA) and a Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS). A competent Radiation Protection Advisor may not be an employee (i.e. consultant) and should
advise the employer on the requirements of the legislation from a technical perspective.
They should also be able to provide advice and guidance on the following matters:
• Local rules and systems of work.
• Personnel monitoring, dosimetry and record keeping.
• Room design, layout and shielding.
• Siting of equipment emitting ionising radiation and transport of radioactive materials.
• Leakage testing of sealed sources.
• Investigation of incidents, including spillages or losses.

Question 24

What monitoring techniques can be used for non-ionising radiation?

Answer 24

• Personal monitoring – assessed by means of personal dosimeters. These may measure whole or part-body doses.
• Medical examination, which should also occur pre-employment and immediately after an overexposure to radiation.
• Area monitoring – levels of radiation in work areas must be regularly assessed.
Records of all forms of monitoring must be kept for 40 years.

Question 25

Define stress?

Answer 25

Stress has been defined as ‘the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them’. There is a difference
between pressure, which can create a ‘buzz’ and motivate people, and stress, which can occur if this pressure becomes excessive.

Question 26

What are the possible causes of stress?

Answer 26

Environmental factors
• Excessive noise in work area.
• Bad housekeeping.
• Constraint spaces.
• Poor lighting.
• Poor ventilation.
• High levels of humidity.
• Too cold or too hot environment.

Job factors
• Shift-work or unsocial hours.
• Excessive overtime.
• Job insecurity or fear of redundancy.
• Repetitive or monotonous work.
• Lack of adequate breaks.
• Lack of control over the job.
• Workload too high or too low.
• Task not matched to the skills of the person.

Workplace interactions
• Harassment.
• Bullying.
• Discrimination.
• Fear of violence.
• Poor communication.
• General relationships with work colleagues.

Personal and social factors
• Illness.
• Financial worries.
• Family commitments.

Question 27

What are the physiological, emotional and behavioural effects of stress?

Answer 27

• Physiological effects:
– Increased blood pressure.
– Tiredness.
– Weight loss or gain.
– Headaches.

• Emotional effects:
– Increased tension.
– Anxiety, depression.
– Frustration.
– Low self-esteem.

• Behavioural effects:
– Eating disorders.
– Drug abuse.
– Insomnia.
– Unusual behaviour.

Question 28

What are the 6 management standards that cover the primary sources of stress?

Answer 28

1. Demands – issues such as workload, work patterns and the work environment.
2. Control – how much say the person has in the way they do their work.
3. Support – the encouragement, sponsorship and resources provided by the organisation, line management and colleagues.
4. Relationships – promoting positive working to avoid conflict and dealing with
   unacceptable behaviour.
5. Role – whether people understand their role within the organisation and whether the
   organisation ensures that they do not have conflicting roles.
6. Change – how organisational change (large or small) is managed and communicated in
   the organisation.