Manipulation and improvement of memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Ebbinghause’s forgetting curve

A

§ Forgetting: the inability to retrieve previously stored information (not the disappearance of information from memory).

§ Forgetting curve: a curve that shoes the pattern of forgetting that occurs over time.

§ Herman Ebbinghaus was the first person to perform systematic research into forgetting.

§ Used only himself for his experiment which involved learning a list of nonsense syllables (pronounceable, 3-lettered) to avoid previous knowledge to interfere with his results.

§ Tested himself until he had perfectly remembered the entire list of ‘words’, and then waited for various period of time (from 20 minutes to a month) and then tested himself again to see how much he had retained.

§ Forgetting occurred most rapidly in the first 20 minutes, and until one hour had passed, the rate of memory loss gradually declined for the next 31 days.

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2
Q

Features of ebbinghause curve

A

§ Features of the curve:

o Most forgetting occurs immediately after learning the information where more than 50% of the material is forgotten within the first hour.

o If the information is overlearned (i.e. learning over and over even when already well-known), the material is more likely to be retained for longer.

o Complexity of material being learnt and intelligence of learner does not affect the rate of forgetting.

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3
Q

Measure of retention - recall

A

Recall: retrieving stored information with a minimal amount of cues; there are three main types:

o Free recall: recalling information in any order.

o Serial recall: recalling information in the order it was presented (e.g. items on a shopping list).

o Cued recall: recalling information with various prompts (cues) to assist in retrieval.

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4
Q

Measure of retention - recognition

A

. Recognition: involves identifying the correct information from among alternatives (e.g. multiple choice questions). .

Generally, more information can be retrieved through this method due to there being more cues to assist in retrieving information from long-term memory.

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5
Q

Measures of retention - relearning

A
  • Relearning: learning again something that has previously been learned and stored in LTM, and thus is easier than learning material for the first time. .
  • If information is learned more quickly the second time, this indicates that some information has been retained from the first learning experience..
  • Most sensitive measure of retention (recall is the least), i.e. the one that provides most access to what has been retained in LTM. .

The effect of relearning is most evident in procedural memories (e.g. relearning a language, musical instrument, etc. and picking it up very quickly). .

Savings score: a score that shows how much faster it took to relearn something and thus indicating how much information was retained on the first trial of learning.

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6
Q

Encoding specificty principle

A

Encoding specificity principle: the more closely the cues present at the time of retrieval match those during the original learning condition, the more likely the information will be recalled (this is an effective way of enhancing retrieval from LTM).

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7
Q

State dependent cues

A

refers to the internal physiological and/or psychological state at the time the memory was formed, acting as a retrieval cue to help access those memories (e.g. mood, level of intoxication, level of anxiety).

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8
Q

Context dependent cues

A

the external environmental cues that were present when the memory was formed, thereby acting as a retrieval cue to help access memories that were formed in that context (includes sights, smells, and sounds).

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9
Q

Mnemonic devices define

A

Mnemonic devices: techniques that minimises forgetting and improves encoding and retrieval from LTM. They add meaning to the material being learned through the use of images, rhymes, and linking new information to existing information in LTM

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10
Q

Method of Loci

A

Method of loci: Involves associating different items to be remembered with a well-learned sequence of location. These locations act as a retrieval cue for each item to be remembered whereby the person forms a mental image of each item to be remembered and one of the locations. They then visualise themselves moving through each location and recalling each of the target item.

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11
Q

Peg-word method

A

Peg-word method: involves memorising a rhyme that includes mental pegs on which you ‘hang’ the material to be remembered. - Firstly, the peg-words must be memorised (names of objects that rhyme with numbers 1-10 such as ‘one is a bun’, ‘two is a shoe’, ‘three is a tree’, ‘four is a door, ‘five is a hive’, etc.). - The items to be recalled are then visually linked to the appropriate peg-word. - E.g. the first three items on a shopping list are sausages, tomato sauce and mustard. The person might then visualise a sausage in a bun, a shoe filled with tomato sauce, and then a mustard seed tree.

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12
Q

Narrative chaining

A

Narrative chaining: incorporates items to be remembered into a meaningful story in which the items to be learned form the key words in the story. Recalling the story provides cues for retrieval of the target items.

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13
Q

Acronyms

A

Acronym: using the first letter of each list of items to be learned to form a pronounceable word (e.g. NAB = National Australia Bank).

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14
Q

Acrostics

A

Acrostic: using the first letter of each list of items to be learned, and then forming a sentence or phrase of words that share the same first letters (e.g. Better Alive Than Dead) ensuring that serial order is maintained. Therefore the first letters become cues for the list of items to be recalled.

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15
Q

Effectiveness of mnemonics

A

o They are more effective for information that can be put into a word list form.

o Mnemonics tend to be used for smaller units of information, especially to remember points of distinction between similar concepts.

o Effective mnemonic techniques work by increasing meaningfulness.

o Techniques such as the method of loci and narrative chaining are very effective because of the increased meaningfulness and elaboration put o the material whilst the associated visual imagery adds to their power.

o They organise information, which provides extra meaning as the information has been given order and structure.

o Many mnemonics utilise the benefits of chunking, which can increase the capacity of information in STM.

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16
Q

Eyewitness testimony

A

Eyewitness testimony: refers to the recollection of a crime and its details by witnesses present when the crime was committed.

o Rarely 100% accurate as when information is retrieved, the memory is reconstructed in which the gaps are filled in a way which makes sense to us. Therefore, everyone’s memory, even of the same event, is different and not totally accurate.

o In terms of eyewitnesses, when asked to describe the scene the witness will build on their own expectations, created by past experiences, values and beliefs.

17
Q

Leading questions

A

From Loftus’ study, it can be seen that leading questions can be used to manipulate the reconstruction of memory. A leading question is one that has is phrased in such a way as to suggest what answer is desired. Such questions contain information that must be true in order for the question to make sense, leading individuals to make assumptions.

18
Q

Limitations of Loftus theory

A

§ Participants consisted of only students and therefore not truly representative of the general population.

§ Real-life events may have a much larger emotional effect on memory, which was not reflected in this study.

§ The film clips of an event used by Loftus did not contain as much information as a real-life event, although it might be argue that participants were actually more focused on the film than they would be in real life. Real eyewitnesses are taken more by surprise and often can’t pay full attention to details, s this research may not have reflected reality.

However, the study does seem to have real-life implications, especially in its relevance to eyewitness testimony. Overall, Loftus’ research reinforced the fragile status of eyewitness memory and shown that memory of an event is not an accurate recreation of it, but a rereconstruction with new information from a number of sources used to fill in gaps in the memory.

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